1. Chapter 2: The Components of Matter
2.1: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic
Overview
2.2: The Observations That Led to an Atomic View
of Matter
2.3: Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2.4: The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom
Model
2.5: The Atomic Theory Today
2.6: Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table
2.7: Compounds: Introduction to Bonding
2.8: Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses
2.9: Mixtures: Classification and Separation

2. Fig. 2.1

3. Definitions for Components of Matter
Pure Substances - Their compositions are fixed! Elements and
compounds are examples of Pure Substances.
Element - Is the simplest type of substance with unique physical and
chemical properties. An element consists of only one type
of atom. It cannot be broken down into any simpler
substances by physical or chemical means.
Molecule - Is a structure that is consisting of two or more atoms that
are chemically bound together and thus behaves as an
independent unit.
Compound - Is a substance composed of two or more elements that
are chemically combined.
Mixture - Is a group of two or more elements and/or compounds that
are physically intermingled.

4. Fig. 2.2

5. (p. 43)

6. Separating a Mixture
Fig. 2.3

7. Fig. 2.4

8. Laws of Mass Conservation & Definite Composition
Law of Mass conservation: The total mass of substances
does not change during a chemical reaction.
Law of Definite ( or constant ) composition: No matter
what its source, a particular chemical
compound is composed of the same elements
in the same parts (fractions) by mass.

9. The Meaning of Mass Fraction and Mass Percent
Fig. 2.5

10. Mass Percent Composition of Na2SO4
Na2SO4 = 2 atoms of Sodium + 1 atom of Sulfur + 4 atoms of Oxygen
Elemental masses
Percent of each Element
2 x Na = 2 x = 45.98
1 x S = 1 x = 32.07
4 x O = 4 x = 64.00
142.05
Check
% Na + % S + % O = 100%
32.37% % % = %

11. Mass Percent Composition of Na2SO4
Na2SO4 = 2 atoms of Sodium + 1 atom of Sulfur + 4 atoms of Oxygen
Elemental masses
Percent of each Element
2 x Na = 2 x = 45.98
%Na = Mass Na / Total mass x 100%
% Na = (45.98 / ) x 100% =32.37%
% S = Mass S / Total mass x 100%
% S = (32.07 / ) x 100% = 22.58%
% O = Mass O / Total mass x 100%
% O = (64.00 / ) x 100% = 45.05%
1 x S = 1 x = 32.07
4 x O = 4 x = 64.00
142.05
Check
% Na + % S + % O = 100%
32.37% % % = %

12. Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound Ammonium Nitrate
How much Nitrogen is in 455 kg of Ammonium Nitrate?
Ammonium Nitrate = NH4NO3
The Formula Mass of Cpd is:
4 x H = 4 x = g
2 x N = 2 X = g
3 x O = 3 x = g
Therefore gm Nitrogen/ gm Cpd g

13. Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound Ammonium Nitrate
How much Nitrogen is in 455 kg of Ammonium Nitrate?
Ammonium Nitrate = NH4NO3
The Formula Mass of Cpd is:
4 x H = 4 x = g
2 x N = 2 X = g
3 x O = 3 x = g
Therefore gm Nitrogen/ gm Cpd
28.02 g Nitrogen g
= g N / g Cpd
g Cpd
455 kg x 1000g / kg = 455,000 g NH4NO3
455,000 g Cpd x g N / g Cpd = 1.59 x 105 g Nitrogen
28.02 kg Nitrogen
or:
455 kg NH4NO3 X
= 159 kg Nitrogen
kg NH4NO4

14. Fig. 2.7

15. Law of Multiple Proportions
If elements A and B react to form two compounds,
the different masses of B that combine with a fixed
mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole
numbers:
Example: Nitrogen Oxides I & II
Nitrogen Oxide I : 46.68% Nitrogen and 53.32% Oxygen
Nitrogen Oxide II : 30.45% Nitrogen and 69.55% Oxygen
in 100 g of each Compound: g O = g & g
g N = g & g
g O /g N = & =

16. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter consists of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into
atoms of another element.
3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other
properties and are different from atoms of any other
element.
4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of
a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.

17. The Combining Volumes of Hydrogen and Oxygen in the Formation of Water Vapor
Fig. 2.8

18. Fig. 2.9

19. Fig. 2.11

20. Rutherford Experiment
Alpha particles bombarding the atom.
Rationale - to study the internal structure of the atom, and to know more about the mass distribution in the atom!
Bombarded a thin Gold foil with Alpha particles from Radium.

21. Fig. 2.12

22. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) Won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908
“It was quite the most incredible event..... It was almost as if a gunner were to fire a shell at a piece of tissue and the shell bounced right back!!!!! ”

23. Fig. 2.13

24. Properties of the Subatomic Particles
Name Charge Mass Location
(Symbol) Relative Absolute Relative(amu) Absolute In Atom
Proton x C* x g Nucleus
(P +)
Neutron x g Nucleus
(n o)
Electron x C* x 10-28g Outside
(e -) Nucleus
* the coulomb (C) is the SI unit of Charge
Table 2.2 (p. 53)

25. Atomic Definitions I: Symbols, Isotopes,NumbersX
The Nuclear Symbol of the Atom, or Isotope Z
X = Atomic symbol of the element, or element symbol
A = The Mass number; A = Z + N
Z = The Atomic Number, the Number of Protons in the Nucleus
N = The Number of Neutrons in the Nucleus
Isotopes = atoms of an element with the same number of protons,
but different numbers of Neutrons in the Nucleus

26. Depicting the Atom
Fig. 2.14

27. Neutral ATOMS 51 Cr = P+ (24), e- (24), N (27)
239 Pu = P+(94), e- (94),
N (145)
15 N = P+(7), e-(7), N(8)
56 Fe = P+(26), e-(26),
N (50)
235 U =P+(92), e-(92),
N (143)

28. Atomic Definitions II: AMU, Dalton, 12C Std.
Atomic mass Unit (AMU) = 1/12 the mass of a carbon - 12 atom
on this scale Hydrogen has a mass of AMU.
Dalton (D) = The new name for the Atomic Mass Unit,
one dalton = one Atomic Mass Unit
on this scale, 12C has a mass of daltons.
Isotopic Mass = The relative mass of an Isotope relative to the
Isotope 12C the chosen standard.
Atomic Mass = “Atomic Weight” of an element is the average of the
masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted
according to their abundances.

29. Isotopes of Hydrogen 11H 1 Proton 0 Neutrons 99.985 % 1.00782503 amu
21H (D) 1 Proton Neutron % amu
31H (T) 1 Proton Neutrons
The average mass of Hydrogen is amu
3H is Radioactive with a half life of 12 years.
H2O Normal water “light water “
mass = 18.0 g/mole , BP = C
D2O Heavy water
mass = 20.0 g/mole , BP = C

30. Element #8 : Oxygen, Isotopes
168O Protons Neutrons
99.759% amu
178O Protons Neutrons
0.037% amu
188O Protons Neutrons
0.204 % amu

31. Formation of a Positively Charged Neon Particle in a Mass Spectrometer
Fig. 2.A

32. Fig. 2.B part A

33. Calculating the “Average” Atomic Mass of an Element
Problem: Calculate the average atomic mass of Magnesium!
Magnesium Has three stable isotopes, 24Mg ( 78.7%);
25Mg (10.2%); 26Mg (11.1%).
24Mg (78.7%) amu x = amu
25Mg (10.2%) amu x = amu
26Mg (11.1%) amu x = amu
amu
With Significant Digits = amu

34. Calculate the Average Atomic Mass of Zirconium, Element #40
Zirconium has five stable isotopes: 90Zr, 91Zr, 92Zr, 94Zr, 96Zr.
Isotope (% abd.) Mass (amu) (%) Fractional Mass
90Zr (51.45%) amu X = amu
91Zr (11.27%) amu X = amu
92Zr (17.17%) amu X = amu
94Zr (17.33%) amu X = amu
96Zr (2.78%) amu X = amu
amu
With Significant Digits = amu

35. Problem: Calculate the abundance of the two Bromine isotopes:
79Br = g/mol and 81Br = g/mol , given that
the average mass of Bromine is g/mol.
Plan: Let the abundance of 79Br = X and of 81Br = Y and X + Y = 1.0
Solution: X( ) + Y( ) =
X + Y = therefore X = Y
( Y)( ) + Y( ) =
Y Y =
Y = or Y =
X = Y = =
%X = % 79Br = x 100% = 50.67% = 79Br
%Y = % 81Br = x 100% = 49.33% = 81Br

36. Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms. Although atoms are composed
of smaller particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons), the atom
is the smallest body that retains the unique identity of the element.
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another
element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be converted into
other elements in Nuclear reactions in which protons are changed.
3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and
electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and thus
in mass number, but a sample of the element is treated as though
its atoms have an average mass.
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more
elements in specific ratios, as originally stated by Dalton.

37. Definitions
ELEMENT - A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means
COMPOUND - A substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions
PERIODIC TABLE - “MENDELEEV TABLE” - A tabular arrangement of the elements, vertical groups or families of elements based upon their chemical properties - actually combining ratios with oxygen

38. Fig. 2.16

39. Fig. 2.17

40. The Periodic Table of the Elements Most Probable Oxidation State+1 H +2 +3
+_4
- 3
- 2
- 1 He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg +3 +4 +5 +1
+ 2 Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Zr Nb Ag I Y Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Cd In Sn Sb Te Xe Ba Au Hg Cs La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me +3 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr +3

41. Newly Discovered Elements
1994
Revised
IUPAC Slate
Atomic
No.
ACS Slate
IUPAC Slate
Rutherfordium Dubnium Rutherfordium
Hahnium Joliotium Dubnium
Seaborgium Rutherfordium Seaborgium
Neilsbohrium Bohrium Bohrium
Hassium Hahnium Hassium
Meitnerium Meitnerium Meitnerium
? ? Labs
? ? GSI
Final Slate
9/12/97
? ? GSI

42. Groups in the Periodic Table
Main Group Elements (Vertical Groups)
Group IA - Alkali Metals
Group IIA - Alkaline Earth Metals
Group IIIA - Boron Family
Group IVA - Carbon Family
Group VA - Nitrogen Family
Group VIA - Oxygen Family (Calcogens)
Group VIIA - Halogens
Group VIIIA - Noble Gases
Other Groups ( Vertical and Horizontal Groups)
Group IB - 8B - Transition Metals
Period 6 Group - Lanthanides (Rare Earth Elements)
Period 7 Group - Actinides

43. The Periodic Table of the ElementsLi Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr U
The Alkali Metals
The Halogens
The Alkaline Earth Metals
The Noble Gases

44. The Periodic Table of the ElementsLi Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm
Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Boron family
Nitrogen family
Carbon Family
Oxygen Family

45. The Periodic Table of the ElementsLi Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me
The Transition Metals Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Lanthanides: The
Rare Earth Elements
The Actinides

46. The Periodic Table of the ElementsLi Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Du Sg Bo Ha Me Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
Gd Tb Dy
Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Metals
Semi - metals
Metalloids
Non Metals

47. Fig. 2.18

48. Fig. 2.19

49. Fig. 2.20

50. Predicting the Ion an Element Will Form in Chemical Reactions
Problem: What monoatomic ions will each of the elements form?
(a) Barium(z=56) (b) Sulfur(z=16) (c) Titanium(z =22) (d) Fluorine(z=9)
Plan: We use the “z” value to find the element in the periodic table and
which is the nearest noble gas. Elements that lie after a noble gas will
loose electrons, and those before a noble gas will gain electrons.
Solution:
(a) Ba+2, Barium is an alkaline earth element, Group 2A, and is
expected to loose two electrons to attain the same number of electrons
as the noble gas Xenon!
(b) S -2, Sulfur is in the Oxygen family, Group 6A, and is expected to
gain two electrons to attain the same number of electrons as the noble
gas Argon!
(c) Ti+4, Titanium is in Group 4B, and is expected to loose 4 electrons
to attain the same number of electrons as the noble gas Argon!
(d) F -, Fluorine is in a halogen, Group 7A, and is expected to gain one
electron, to attain the same number of electrons as the noble gas Neon!

51. Chemical Compounds and Bonds
Chemical Bonds - The electrostatic forces that hold the
atoms of elements together in the compound.
Covalent Compounds - Electrons are shared between
atoms of different elements to form Covalent Cpds.
Ionic Compounds - Electrons are transferred from one
atom to another to form Ionic Cpds.
“Cations” - Metal atoms lose electrons to form “ + ” ions.
“Anions” - Nonmetal atoms gain electrons to form “ - ” ions.
Mono-atomic ions form binary ionic compounds

52. Formation of a Covalent Bond between Two Hydrogen Atoms
Fig. 2.21

53. A Polyatomic Ion
Fig. 2.22

54. Chemical Formulas
Empirical Formula - Shows the relative number of atoms
of each element in the compound. It is the simplest
formula, and is derived from masses of the elements.
Molecular Formula - Shows the actual number of atoms
of each element in the molecule of the compound.
Structural Formula - Shows the actual number of atoms,
and the bonds between them ; that is, the arrangement
of atoms in the molecule.

55. Fig. 2.23

56. Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name
Table 2.3 (p. 67) Common Monoatomic Ions
Cations Anions
Charge Formula Name Charge Formula Name
H hydrogen H hydride
Li lithium F fluoride
Na sodium Cl chloride
K potassium Br bromide
Cs cesium I iodide
Ag silver
Mg magnesium O oxide
Ca calcium S sulfide
Sr strontium
Ba barium
Zn zinc
Cd cadmium
Al aluminum N nitride
Listed by charge; those in boldface are most common

57. Give the Name and Chemical Formulas of the Compounds Formed from the Following Pairs of Elements
a) Sodium and Oxygen Na2O Sodium Oxide
b) Zinc and Chlorine ZnCl Zinc Chloride
c) Calcium and Fluorine CaF Calcium Fluoride
d) Strontium and Nitrogen Sr3N Strontium Nitride
e) Hydrogen and Iodine HI Hydrogen Iodide
f) Scandium and Sulfur Sc2S Scandium Sulfide

58. Some Metals That Form More than One Oxidation State
Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common Name
Chromium Cr Chromium (II) Chromous
Cr Chromium (III) Chromic
Cobalt Co Cobalt (II)
Co Cobalt (III)
Copper Cu Copper (I) Cuprous
Cu Copper (II) Cupic
Iron Fe Iron (II) Ferrous
Fe Iron (III) Ferric
Lead Pb Lead (II)
Pb Lead (IV)
Manganese Mn Manganese (II)
Mn Manganese (III)
Mercury Hg Mercury (I) Mercurous
Hg Mercury (II) Mercuric
Tin Sn Tin (II) Stannous
Sn Tin (IV) Stannic
Table 2.4 (p. 69)

59. Some Common Polyatomic Ions
Formula Name Formula Name
Cations
Anions Ctd.
NH Ammonium
H3O Hydronium
MnO Permanganate
CO Carbonate
HCO Hydrogen Carbonate
CrO Chromate
Cr2O Dichromate
O Peroxide
PO Phosphate
HPO Hydrogen Phosphate
H2PO Dihydrogen Phosphate
SO Sulfite
SO Sulfate
HSO Hydrogen Sulfate
Anions
CH3COO Acetate
CN Cyanide
OH Hydroxide
ClO Hypochlorite
ClO Chlorite
ClO Chlorate
ClO Perchlorate
NO Nitrite
NO Nitrate

60. Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas
Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic Com-pounds of Elements That Form More than One Ion
Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas
for the names of the following compounds.
a) Iron III Sulfide - Fe is +3, and S is -2 therefore the compound is:
Fe2S3
b) CoF the anion is Fluoride (F -1) and there are two F -1, the
cation is Cobalt and it must be Co+2 therefore the compound is:
Cobalt (II) Fluoride
c) Stannic Oxide - Stannic is the common name for Tin (IV), Sn+4, the
Oxide ion is O-2, therefore the formula of the compound is:
SnO2
d) NiCl3 - The anion is chloride (Cl-1), there are three anions, so the
Nickel cation is Ni+3, therefore the name of the compound is:
Nickel (III) Chloride

61. Rules for Families of Oxoanions
Families with Two Oxoanions
The ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the
suffix “-ate”.
The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the
suffix “-ite”.
Families with Four Oxoanions (usually a Halogen)
The ion with most O atoms has the prefix “per-”, the nonmetal
root and the suffix “-ate”.
The ion with one less O atom has just the suffix “-ate”.
The ion with two less O atoms has the just the suffix “-ite”.
The ion with three less O atoms has the prefix “hypo-” and the
suffix “-ite”.

62. Naming Oxoanions - Examples
Prefixes Root Suffixes Chlorine Bromine Iodine
per “ ” ate perchlorate perbromate periodate
[ ClO4-] [ BrO4-] [ IO4-]
“ ” ate chlorate bromate iodate
[ ClO3-] [BrO3-] [ IO3-]
“ ” ite chlorite bromite iodite
[ ClO2-] [ BrO2-] [ IO2-]
hypo “ ” ite hypochlorite hypobromite hypoiodite
[ ClO -] [ BrO -] [ IO -]
No. of O atoms

63. Numerical Prefixes for Hydrates and Binary Covalent Compounds
NUMBER PREFIX NUMBER PREFIX
mono hexa-
di hepta-
tri octa-
tetra nona-
penta deca-
Table 2.6 (p. 70)

64. Compounds Containing Water Molecules
Hydrates
Compounds Containing Water Molecules
MgSO4 7H2O Magnesium Sulfate heptahydrate
CaSO4 2H2O Calcium Sulfate dihydrate
Ba(OH)2 8H2O Barium Hydroxide octahydrate
CuSO4 5H2O Copper II Sulfate pentahydrate
Na2CO H2O Sodium Carbonate decahydrate

65. Examples of Names and Formulas of Oxoanions and Their Compounds - I
KNO Potassium Nitrite BaSO3 Barium Sulfite
Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium Nitrate Na2SO4 Sodium Sulfate
LiClO4 Lithium Perchlorate Ca(BrO)2 Calcium Hypobromite
NaClO3 Sodium Chlorate Al(IO2) Aluminum Iodite
RbClO2 Rubidium Chlorite KBrO3 Potassium Bromate
CsClO Cesium Hypochlotite LiIO4 Lithium Periodate

66. Examples of Names and Formulas of Oxoanions and Their Compounds - II
Calcium Nitrate Ca(NO3) Ammonium Sulfite (NH4)2SO3
Strontium Sulfate SrSO Lithium Nitrite LiNO2
Potassium Hypochlorite KClO Lithium Perbromate LiBrO4
Rubidium Chlorate RbClO Calcium Iodite Ca(IO2)2
Ammonium Chlorite NH4ClO Boron Bromate B(BrO3)3
Sodium Perchlorate NaClO Magnesium Hypoiodite Mg(IO)2

67. Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
a) BaCl2
Ba+2 is the cation Barium, Cl- is the Chloride
anion. There are five water molecules therefore
the name is: Barium Chloride Pentahydrate
5 H2O
b) Magnesium Perchlorate Magnesium is the Mg+2 cation, and
perchlorate is the ClO4- anion, therefore we need
two perchlorate anions for each Mg cation
therefore the formula is: Mg( ClO4)2
c) (NH4)2SO NH4+ is the ammonium ion, and SO3-2 is the
sulfite anion, therefore the name is:
Ammonium Sulfite
d) Calcium Nitrate Calcium is the Ca+2 cation, and nitrate is the
NO3- anion, therefore the formula is:
Ca(NO3)2

68. Naming Acids
1) Binary acids solutions form when certain gaseous compounds
dissolve in water. For example, when gaseous hydrogen chloride
(HCl) dissolves in water, it forms a solution called hydrochloric acid.
Prefix hydro- + anion nonmetal root + suffix -ic + the word acid
hydrochloric acid
2) Oxoacid names are similar to those of the oxoanions,
except for two suffix changes:
Anion “-ate” suffix becomes an “-ic” suffix in the acid. Anion “-ite”
suffix becomes an “-ous” suffix in the acid.
The oxoanion prefixes “hypo-” and “per-” are retained. Thus, BrO4-
is perbromate, and HBrO4 is perbromic acid; IO2- is iodite, and
HIO2 is iodous acid.

69. Determining Names and Formulas of Anions and Acids
Problem: Name the following anions and give the names and
formulas of the acid solutions derived from them:
a) I b) BrO c) SO d) NO e) CN -
Solution:
a) The anion is Iodide; and the acid is Hydroiodic acid, HI
b) The anion is Bromite; and the acid is Bromous acid, HBrO2
c) The anion is Sulfite; and the acid is Sulfurous acid, H2SO3
d) The anion is Nitrate; and the acid is Nitric acid, HNO3
e) The anion is Cyanide; and the acid is Hydrocyanic acid, HCN

70. Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds
1) The element with the lower group number in the periodic table is
the first word in the name; the element with the higher group number
is the second word. (Important exception: When the compound
contains oxygen and a halogen, the halogen is named first.)
2) If both elements are in the same group, the one with the higher
period number is named first.
3) The second element is named with its root and the suffix “-ide.”
4) Covalent compounds have Greek numerical prefixes (table 2.6) to
indicate the number of atoms of each element in the compound. The
first word has a prefix only when more than one atom of the element
is present; the second word always has a numerical prefix.

71. Determining Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds
Problem:
What are the name or Chemical formulas of the following
Chemical compounds:
a) Carbon dioxide b) PCl3 c) Give the name and chemical formula
of the compound formed from two P atoms and five O atoms.
Solution:
a) The prefix “di-” means “two.” The formula is CO2
b) P is the symbol for phosphorous; there are three chlorine atoms
which require the prefix “tri-.” The name of the compound is:
phosphorous trichloride
c) P comes first in the name (lower group number). The compound is
diphosphorous pentaoxide
( commonly called “phosphorous pentaoxide”)

72. Naming Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that are called “saturated” hydrocarbons,
they contain only single bonds, no multiple bonds !
Alkanes have the general formula C n H 2n+2
Each carbon atom has four bonds to others atoms !
The names for alkanes all end in -ane
Alkanes are found in three distinct groups:
a) Straight chain hydrocarbons
b) Branched chain hydrocarbons
c) Cyclic hydrocarbons

73. The First 10 Straight-Chain Alkanes
Name Formula Structural Formulas H H H
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14
Heptane C7H16
Octane C8H18
Nonane C9H20
Decane C10H22 H C H H
C C H H H H
CH3-CH2-CH3
CH3-(CH2)2-CH3
CH3-(CH2)3-CH3
CH3-(CH2)4-CH3
CH3-(CH2)5-CH3
CH3-(CH2)6-CH3
CH3-(CH2)7-CH3
Table 2.7
CH3-(CH2)8-CH3

74. Calculating the Molecular Mass of a Compound
Problem: Using the data in the periodic table, calculate the molecular
mass of the following compounds:
a) Tetraphosphorous decoxide b) Ammonium sulfate
Plan: We first write the formula, then multiply the number of atoms
(or ions) of each element by its atomic mass, and find the sum.
Solution:
a) The formula is P4O10.
Molecular mass = (4 x atomic mass of P ) +(10 x atomic mass of O )
= ( 4 x amu) + ( 10 x amu)
= = amu
b) The formula is (NH4)2SO4
Molecular mass = ( 2 x atomic mass of N ) + ( 8 x atomic mass of H)
+ ( 1 x atomic mass of S ) + ( 4 x atomic mass of O)
= ( 2 x amu) + ( 8 x amu) +
( 1 x amu) + ( 4 x amu)
= amu = amu

75. Calculate the Molecular Mass of Glucose: C6H12O6
Carbon x g/mol = g
Hydrogen 12 x g/mol = g
Oxygen x g/mol = g g

76. Fig. 2.25

77. Mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures : has one or more visible
boundaries between the components.
Homogeneous mixtures : has no visible boundaries
because the components are mixed as individual atoms,
ions, and molecules.
Solutions : A homogeneous mixture is also called a solution.
Solutions in water are called aqueous solutions, and are
very important in chemistry. Although we normally think
of solutions as liquids, they can exist in all three physical
states.

78. Separating Mixtures
Filtration : Separates components of a mixture based upon
differences in particle size. Normally separating a
precipitate from a solution, or particles from an
air stream.
Crystallization : Separation is based upon differences in
solubility of components in a mixture.
Distillation : separation is based upon differences in volatility.
Extraction : Separation is based upon differences in
solubility in different solvents (major material).
Chromatography : Separation is based upon differences
in solubility in a solvent versus a stationary phase.

79. Filtration
Fig. 2.D

80. Crystallization
Fig. 2.E

81. Fig. 2.F

82. Fig. 2.G

83. Procedure for Column Chromatography
Fig. 2.H

84. Fig. 2.I A&B