1. 169. Reinforcement through France English borrowed many words from Latin and French Latin : consistere and explorare French: consister and explorer Verb ( consist and explore ) Latin: affabilis French: affable Adjectives ( affable, audible and jovial)

2. 170. Words from Roman Language 16 th century: Three classes of strange words: inkhorn terms, oversea language and Chaucerisms. English vocab adopted more than 50 languages: French Italian Spanish

3. English travel in France and consumption of books in such word as alloy, baluster, comrade, detail, entrance…etc. English travel in Italy observed Italian architecture and brought back Italian manners and styles of dress and Italian words. Italian words: algebra,balcony, cameo,design…etc. Italian words adapted to French: batallion, bankrupt, carat, gala…. etc. from Spanish and Portuguese: alligator, apricot, armada, banana, brocade…. etc.

4. 171. The Method of Introducing New Words Influenced the work of churchmen and scholars Effort of individual writers and their associates Medium of writing Books

5. 172. Enrichment from Native Sources English vocab was drawn from sources outside English. Foreign words have implied a disparagement of English resources that was resented in some quarters. Poetical innovation: old words revived such as astound, blameful, displeasant, enroot…etc. Adaptation of and derivative of old words: baneful, briny, changeful, drear…etc.

6. 173. Method of Interpreting the New Words New words were presented in various ways: i.Explanations were added parenthetically ii.Equivalent word or expression was combined the new and old in a self-interpreting pair.

7. 176. The Movement Illustrated in Shakespeare Shakespeare had the largest vocabulary of any English writer. Shakespeare’s words: agile, antipathy, catastrophe, consonancy, critical, dire, emphasis…etc. He use new words illustrates an important point in connection with them.

8. 177. Shakespeare’s Pronunciations Much more like ours: [e] for [i] in some words Er, ir and ur have same pronunciation (e.g., herd, birth, hurt) Two different sound: i.Close sound which spelled with ee or ie (deep, field) ii.Open sound was written ea (sea, clean)

9. Words containing a ME Ộ regularly develop into [u:] (room, food, roof and root) Vowel was shortened and unrounded to the sound in blood and flood In 1700, the length was shortened without being unrounded (e.g., good, stood, book and foot) Fluctuations in pronunciation of words containing Middle English vowel.

10. 178. Changes shown through corpus Linguistic Flourishing of sociolinguistics and availability of electronic databases, converged to give a fuller picture of English language.

11. 179. Grammatical Features English grammar in the 16 th and early 17 th century is marked more by survival of certain forms and usage. Reduced in inflection of OE Few parts of speech was retained some of their original inflections.

12. 180. The Noun The inflections retained in the noun were plural and possessive singular. S-plural become so generalized except: i. sheep and swine – unchanged plurals ii. mice and feet –mutated vowel

13. In ME –es of genitive was written and pronounced –is, -ys. The ending identical to the pronoun his (lost h when unstressed) So, pronunciations stonis and ston his (his) are the same

14. 181. The Adjective Adjectives lost all its ending; no distinctions of gender, number and case Two method used to form comparative and superlative:  ending –er and –est  the adverb more and most Shakespearian comparison ( honester and violentest) replaced by analytical forms

15. 182. The Pronoun 16 th century: establishment of personal pronoun. Involved three changes: i.Disuse of thou, thy and thee ii.Substitution of you for ye as nominative case iii.Introduction of its as possessive of it

16. i.Disuse of thou, thy and thee Early period of English: thou = singular ye = plural 13 th century: thou, thy and thee = singular [addressing children or persons of inferior rank] ye, your and you = plural [addressing superior] Later, ye, your and you become the usual pronoun of direct addressing irrespective of rank or intimacy. Shakespeare’s time: y- form displaced the th- form among both men and women.

17. ii. Substitution of you for ye as nominative case ye = nominative you = objective 14 th century: you used as nominative, and ye appear for objective case Finally, ye disappeared

18. iii. Introduction of its as possessive of it Formation of new possessive neuter its. his remain the proper form of possessive Noun ( stone’s, horse’s ) suggest the analogical form of it’s for possessive of it. Old EnglishMiddle EnglishModern English Declined in neuter pronoun Merging of dative and accusative Unstressed position hit, his, him, hithit, his, hitit, his, its

19. The use of who as a relative Uses of who are the sources of new construction: as indefinite pronoun as interrogative in indirect questions No relative pronoun [ se, s ēo, þæt] have more demonstrative force Þe was added and used alone Old English Þe taken placed by, þæt (that) which alternate frequently with that Middle English

20. 183. The verb Verb used to distinguish part of speech from its form in later times. i.Common interrogative form without an auxiliary ii.Scarcity of progressive forms iii.Impersonal use of verb iv.Difference in inflection Ending of third person singular of present indicative

21. Difference in inflection  In South and Southeastern part of England: The formation of the standard speech was –eth. Chaucer: telleth, giveth, saith, doth  North the formation of –es 16 th century –eth spread into north and become majority form -es was preferred by women than by men -es was resurfaced in London and ending word had undergone contraction.

22. 184. Usage and idioms Defy explanations or logical classification. Placing of the negative before verb: ShakespeareNowadays At the lengthAt length At the lastAt last

23. 185.General characteristic of the period Conscious interest in the English language Effect of the Great Vowel Shift Words had not distributed themselves into rigid grammatical categories Many features of language were unsettled: alternative forms in grammar, experiments with new words and variations in pronunciation and spelling.