1. Ocean Zones & bathymetry
Ref: Lesson 6 in textbook

2. Ocean zones
An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere.
Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas.

3. characteristics
More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep.
Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%).
Scientists estimate that 230,000 marine life forms of all types are currently known, but the total could be up to 10 times that number.

4. World ocean
Though generally described as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.
This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.

5. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. These divisions are (in descending order of size):
Pacific Ocean, which separates Asia and Australia from the Americas
Atlantic Ocean, which separates the Americas from Eurasia and Africa
Indian Ocean, which washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia
Southern Ocean, which, unlike other oceans, has no landmass separating it from other oceans and is therefore sometimes subsumed as the southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, which encircles Antarctica and covers much of the Antarctic
Arctic Ocean, sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic, which covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia

6. World ocean
The Pacific and Atlantic may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits and other names.

7. Origin of ocean water
One scientific theory about the origin of ocean water states that as Earth formed from a cloud of gas and dust more than 4.5 billion years ago, a huge amount of lighter elements (including hydrogen and oxygen) became trapped inside the molten interior of the young planet.
During the first one to two billion years after Earth's formation, these elemental gases rose through thousands of miles of molten and melting rock to erupt on the surface through volcanoes and fissures (long narrow cracks).

8. Origin of ocean water
Within the planet and above the surface, oxygen combined with hydrogen to form water. Enormous quantities of water shrouded the globe as an incredibly dense atmosphere of water vapor.
Near the top of the atmosphere, where heat could be lost to outer space, water vapor condensed to liquid and fell back into the water vapor layer below, cooling the layer.
This atmospheric cooling process continued until the first raindrops fell to the young Earth's surface and flashed into steam. This was the beginning of a fantastic rainstorm that, with the passage of time, gradually filled the ocean basins.

9. Origin of ocean water
Scientists calculate that this cosmic rain adds one inch of water to Earth's surface every 10,000 to 20,000 years. This amount of water could have been enough to fill the oceans if these comets have been entering Earth's atmosphere since the planet's beginning 4.5 billion years ago.

10. Why is the ocean blue?
A common misconception is that the oceans are blue primarily because the sky is blue. In fact, water has a very slight blue color that can only be seen in large volumes.
While the sky's reflection does contribute to the blue appearance of the surface, it is not the primary cause.
The primary cause is the absorption by the water molecules' nuclei of red photons from the incoming light, the only known example of color in nature resulting from vibrational, rather than electronic, dynamics.

11. Physical properties
The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1,400,000,000,000,000,000 metric tons which is about 0.023% of the Earth's total mass. Less than 3% is freshwater; the rest is saltwater, mostly in the ocean.

12. Topic 1: bathymetry :characteristics of the ocean floor
The surfaces of the Moon and Jupiter have been mapped more thoroughly than the floor of the sea.

13. Not in notes! - The Vast Unknown
On January 7, 2005, only 400 miles from its base on Guam, the navy submarine USS San Francisco was traveling about 35 mph when it slammed into an uncharted mountain about 6,000 feet beneath the surface.
One crew member died and 23 others were injured.

14. Ocean floor
The familiar landscapes of continents are mirrored, and generally magnified, by similar features in the ocean basin.
The largest underwater mountains, for example, are higher than those on the continents.
Underwater plains are flatter and more extensive than those on the continents.
All basins contain certain common features that include oceanic ridges, trenches, fracture zones, abyssal plains, and volcanic cones.

15. SEAFLOOR FEATURES

16. 1) Continental shelf
Gently sloping land area along the edges of continents

17. 2) Continental slope
Steep slope leading from the edge of a continent down to the seafloor

18. 3) Continental Rise
Hill of sediment at the bottom of the steep slope near the edges of continents

19. 4) Abyssal plains
Abyssal plains are relatively flat areas of the ocean basin with slopes of less than one foot of elevation difference for each thousand feet of distance.
They tend to be found at depths of meters.
Oceanographers believe that abyssal plains are so flat because they are covered with sediments (clay, sand, and gravel) that have been washed off the surface of the continents for hundreds of thousands of years.
More extensive in Atlantic and Indian Ocean because of constant river input of sediments.

20. 5) Ocean ridges
Enormous mountain ranges, or oceanic ridges, cover the ocean floor.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge starts at Greenland, runs down the center of the Atlantic Ocean and ends at the southern tip of the Africa.
At that point, it stretches around the eastern edge of Africa, where it becomes the Mid-Indian Ridge.
Some scientists say this is a single oceanic ridge that encircles Earth, one that stretches a total of more than 40,000 miles.

21. 5) Ocean ridges
In most locations, oceanic ridges are 2,000 meters or more below the surface of the oceans.
In a few places, however, they actually extend above sea level and form islands. Iceland, the Azores (about mi. off coast of Portugal), and Tristan de Cunha are examples of such islands.

22. 5) Ocean ridges
Running along the middle of an oceanic ridge, there is often a deep crevice known as a rift, or median valley.
This central rift can plunge as far as 2,000 m below the top of the ridge that surrounds it.
Scientists believe ocean ridges are formed when magma emerges from Earth’s interior, a process known as seafloor spreading.
Alfred Wegener developed continental drift theory
Which led to Harry Hess’s proposal of seafloor spreading
Rifts may be the specific parts of the ridges where the magma escapes.

23. 6) trenches
Trenches are long, narrow, canyon like structures, most often found next to a continental margin.
They occur much more commonly in the Pacific than in any of the other oceans.
The deepest trench on Earth is the Mariana Trench, which runs from the coast of Japan south and then west toward the Philippine Islands—a distance of about 1,580 miles.
The British naval vessel, Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench, the "Challenger Deep".

25. 6) Trenches Its deepest spot is 11,033 meters below sea level.
Earthquakes and volcanic activity are commonly associated with trenches.

27. 7) Fracture zones
Fracture zones are regions where sections of the ocean floor slide past each other, relieving tension created by seafloor spreading at the ocean ridges.
Ocean crust in a fracture zone looks like it has been sliced up by a giant knife.
The faults in a zone usually cut across ocean ridges, often nearly at right angles to the ridge.

28. 7) Fracture zones
A map of the North Atlantic Ocean basin, for example, shows the Mid-Atlantic Ridge traveling from north to south across the middle of the basin, with dozens of fracture zones cutting across the ridge from east to west.

29. 8) Volcanic cones
Ocean basins are alive with volcanic activity. Magma flows upward from the mantle to the ocean bottom not only through rifts, but also through numerous volcanoes and other openings in the ocean floor.
a) Seamounts are submarine volcanoes and can be either active or extinct.
b) Guyots are a type of seamount.
Extinct volcanoes that were once above sea level but have since receded below the surface. As they receded, wave or current action eroded the top of the volcano to a flat surface.

31. 8) Volcanic cones
Seamounts and guyots typically rise about miles above the ocean floor.
One of the largest known seamounts is Great Meteor Seamount in the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean.
It extends to a height of more than 4,000 m above the ocean floor.
Africa

33. Ocean zones The ocean can be divided into two basic regions:
A. The Pelagic Zone (anywhere in the water column)
B. Benthic Zone (the seafloor)

34. Pelagic Zone The Pelagic Zone is further divided horizontally into:
1. Neritic Zones – Those near the coast.
2. Oceanic Zones – Those away from the influence of land.

35. Pelagic zone Epipelagic zone – (0-200 meters)
Can also be divided vertically into:
Epipelagic zone – (0-200 meters)
Mesopelagic Zone (200–1000 meters)
Bathypelagic Zone – ( meters)
Abyssalpelagic Zone – ( meters)
Hadalpelagic – (6000 – 10,000 meters)

37. Benthic Zone
Supralittoral (splash zone) – rarely if ever covered with water
Intertidal/littoral Zone – Regularly submerged and exposed with the fluctuating tide levels
Sublittoral (sub – tidal) Zone – which extends to the edge of the continental shelf.

38. Ocean Zones Diagram

40. Photic zone
Pelagic part of photic zone is also known as epipelagic and covers the oceans from surface level to 200 m depth.
This is the region where photosynthesis can occur and therefore is the most biodiverse.
Since plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than this must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source; hydrothermal vents are the primary option in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m).

41. How light penetrates the ocean

42. Benthic aphotic zones
These correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea.
The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft).
The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m.
Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone which is found in the oceanic trenches.

43. Water Depth vs light penetration
Sunlight obviously cannot penetrate beyond a certain depth in the ocean.
Some organisms have, however, evolved to cope with the absence of sunlight at great depths.
Plants require sunlight to carry on photosynthesis—the process by which they convert carbon dioxide, water, and other nutrients to simple carbohydrates to produce energy, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
Below a depth of about 660 feet (200 meters), not enough sunlight penetrates to allow photosynthesis to occur. The area of the ocean where photosynthesis occurs is known as the euphotic zone (meaning "good light").

44. Light penetration
From the standpoint of living organisms, the euphotic zone is probably the most important of all oceanic zones.
By some estimates, about two-thirds of all the photosynthetic activity that occurs on Earth (on land and in the water) takes place within the euphotic zone.

45. Light penetration
From 660 to 3,000 feet (200 to 900 meters), only about 1 percent of sunlight penetrates. This layer is known as the dysphotic zone (meaning "bad light").
Below this layer, down to the deepest parts of the ocean, it is perpetual night.
This last layer is called the aphotic zone (meaning "without light").
At one time, scientists thought that very little life existed within the aphotic zone. However, they now know that a variety of interesting organisms can be found living on the deepest parts of the ocean floor.