1. F Why can’t this student read?
He doesn’t speak English. How will I test him? F
He is not learning as quickly as the other ELLs are. Could it be a learning disability?
Question – Who recognizes this situation? Which one are you? RAISE HANDS
Why am I so interested?
Hickory, NC 1997 – first job - -big ego gotten taken down a peg
Marco – came to USA around age 5. Now 6th grade. Way behind his peers in reading and writing. Spec ed teacher = “not a LD.” ELL teacher = “not lang. Acq.”
How do we know?!
Because of the extreme frustration with this situation, when I was studying to get my Masters Degree, I chose to do research related to assessing ELLs for a Learning Disability.
I presented this information at a local conference, and got a lot of “yes, that’s interesting, but my district doesn’t allow that or that or that.”
I knew I had valuable information, but it wasn’t applicable to all schools.
Went to TESOL convention, all presentations started with the idea that “the EL teacher knows if it is LD or not.”
Not true!
***

2. Diane Jacobson Minnesota English Language Educators November 2014
Language Acquisition or Learning Disability? Indicators for Informed Opinions
ESL?
ELL?
EL?
My purpose today is to present the results of research that I think can be helpful for
ELL teachers who need more information about assessing a learning disability in an EL, so that when we are consulted, we have an informed opinion and can be a strong advocate for the student - - -whether they need to be in Special Education or be kept out of Special Education.***
I try to be consistent, but I often will use ESL because that is what is still used at the college level. Sorry! ***
Diane Jacobson
Minnesota English Language Educators November 2014

3. Preview Challenges in assessing ELLs
Non-discriminatory evaluation options
Discussion and application
Challenges in assessing ELLs
Evidence that standard assessment techniques are not working
Non-discriminatory evaluation options
Discussion and application – Give us an opportunity to apply what we have discussed
***

4. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states:
. . . an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell. . .
not. . . environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
(1997/2004)
A Learning Disability is one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematic calculation The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
The problem?
How does a teacher know if a student’s imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, or spell is psychological or cultural?
Is there a checklist of expected behavior for a student with a learning disability versus a student struggling with Lang. Acq?
***
Challenges

5. Is it a Learning Disability (LD) or Language Acquisition (LA)?
Slow speech development
Pronunciation problems
Difficulty following simple directions
Difficulty understanding questions
Difficulty expressing needs
Difficulty staying on task
Trouble interacting with others
Not making eye contact
DISCUSS BEHAVIORS
Elicit LD or LA?***
Challenges

6. Is it a Learning Disability (LD) or Language Acquisition (LA)??
Slow speech development x
Pronunciation problems
Difficulty following simple directions
Difficulty understanding questions
Difficulty expressing needs
Difficulty staying on task
X (cultural)
Trouble interacting with others
Not making eye contact
The 1st challenge to non-discriminatory assessment is that the expected behaviors for a student with a learning disability are very similar to the normal behavior of a second language learner (some are cultural, not necessarily Language Acquisition). I listed 8; the book lists 30 behaviors found in a student with a LD that you would also expect to see in an ELL.
The complete list is on the HANDOUT.
Teachers see these behaviors and start talking to the special education teachers.
So, if there is not a checklist, maybe there is a test? ***
Challenges
Klingner, Hoover, Baca 2008

7. I Q tests Verbal Non-verbal
Formal assessments in the identification process is the second challenge in the process.
A quick word about IQ tests - -
Two kinds are commonly used
Verbal - - should look familiar to us. Clearly, this would not be appropriate for an English learner. Often, verbal tests in the students’ first language are given.
Non-verbal this version of testing claims to eliminate language and culture as a barrier to testing.***

8. Lack of non-discriminatory formal testing options
(Spanish)
English
Native Language tests (IQ Tests)
Not developed for bilinguals
Not normed for bilinguals
Not Valid, Not Reliable
Nonverbal IQ tests
Predictive validity is not as high as verbal tests
(Cleary, Humphreys, Kendrick, & Wesman, 1975)
Use of trained translators
Validity and reliability may be adversely affected
Use of non-trained translators
Destroys validity and reliability
General Lack of valid and reliable formal assessment instruments for ELLs
Some general improvement - - as late as ELLs were given English IQ tests and then labeled “mildly mentally retarded.”
4 basic options for formal testing --
Native Language tests – for example, test a Spanish speaking student with the Spanish version of the verbal IQ test. problems? (student may not speak dialect of the test, not developed for bilinguals – home language in Spanish but academic language in English – not normed against bilinguals, therefore, not valid, not reliable)***
Non-verbal IQ tests - - Any problems? (low predictive validity claimed in fairly widespread acceptance that non-verbal tests don’t predict future success in language based tasks)***
Use of trained translators- -problems? standardized procedures are not being followed and the students are not being normed to other students who took the test with an translators- - therefore, validity and reliability are adversely affected)Think about the difficulty of translating – word choice? #1. is too hard, #2 is too easy or no option available, so give explanation that gives away the answer.***
Use of non-trained translators (hey! My neighbor speaks Somali!) - - potential problems? (validity and reliability are destroyed)***
NO Worries! The government has it all figured out ***
Challenges

9. Disproportionate Representation
Unequal proportions of culturally diverse students in special education programs
% of ELLs in school = % of ELLs in Special Education OR
2. % of ELLS in Special Education = % of Caucasian, NES in Special Education
The answer is the general prevalence of disproportionate representation of ELLs in the Special Education programs.***
So, what is Disproportionate Representation? ***
formal definition = “unequal proportions of culturally diverse students in special education programs.”
There are two “rules of thumb” that are used for gauging disproportionate representation.***
1. the percentage of ELLs in the total school population = percentage in special education. (25% of your school population = 25% of the special ed population).
2. the percentage of ELLs in special education = the percentage of white students in special education. (3% of your white students are in special education, then 3% of your ELLS should be in special education).
***
Evidence

10. Disproportionate Representation in a California School District
One example of disproportionate representation in one particular school. Spanish speakers (largest native language of ELLs in the USA) – national averages are actually proportionate. (example, 20%% of the population is ELL; 20% of population in Special Ed is ELL)
What is the problem? - - -if you look at individual school districts, some schools have their ELL population OVER-represented while other schools have their ELL population UNDER-represented. (which averages out). So, having too many ELLs in Special Ed is just as much of a problem as ELLs not receiving the Spec Ed services that they need.
Examine chart – discuss - - what happens around 4th and 5th grade that so many students are in special education? (Reading to learn, no longer learning to read)
Disproportionate representation continues even with the 2004 re-write of the Individuals with Disabilities Act****
Evidence
Artiles et al. (2002)

11. “tests must be non-discriminatory”
IDEA (2004)
“tests must be non-discriminatory”
Easy to say, Hard to do.
Now that I have painted a fairly bleak picture (identical behaviors and no reliable or valid formal assessment methods), what are educators supposed to do?***
Evaluations

12. Evaluations at the Classroom Level
Focus on Student’s strengths
It takes a village to raise a child, and it takes a team to identify an ELL for a Learning disability. All of the educators need to bring their experience to the table, and that means the ELL instructor needs to have an informed opinion.
Often, teachers will just say “Marco is failing my class; he has been in America for 6 years; it must be a learning disability.” That is not acceptable reasoning for suspecting a learning disability.
The first step is that educators need to stop focusing on what a student cannot do; we must begin to focus on what the student can do and work from there.
What does this mean for the content teachers and the ELL specialists who work with them?
ELL specialists have a very valuable tool - - the WIDA “can do” descriptors.
Who has heard of WIDA? ***
Evaluations

13. WIDA “can do” descriptors
ELL specialists need to be familiar with and use the WIDA can do descriptors when talking about ELLs with the content teacher.
Let’s stop talking about the student who has lived in America for 1 year and can’t join in group discussions (Level 5). Let’s talk about the student who has lived in America for 1 year and CAN answer yes/no questions (Level 1). This way, when it is one year later, and the student still cannot join in group discussions (making it look like he has not made progress), if he CAN make his needs know in social situations (Level 2), we know that he has made progress.
***
Assessments
(2013)

14. From: www.mplsesl.wikispaces.com John Wolfe and Rita Platt
Elementary school classroom example:
Posted in the classroom - - students know their current level (based on WIDA assessment) and know to do the related activity when assigned.
So After a lesson about plant biology, a level 1 student would copy, draw, and label any diagrams from the textbook. A level 3 student would create sentences about the diagrams: The seed is small and black.
Educators are now focusing on what a student CAN do instead of what he/she CANNOT do.
With time and quality instruction, students should begin to advance up the levels until they are working at grade level with their peers (Level 6).
When a student does not advance (stuck at level 2 even after focused instruction) that is when an educator has reason for concern.***
From:
John Wolfe and Rita Platt

15. Evaluations at the Classroom Level
Focus on Student’s strengths
Observation
Conversation samples
Storytelling
Story re-telling
Once educators are focusing on student strengths, there are additional assessments that can be used to document student progress.
Observation - - Take a few minutes and WRITE down what you are noticing. Time. Date. Place. Situation. Be honest if you are inferring or guessing about the source of the frustration.
Conversation samples - - “spontaneous conversation samples to assess how well a student understands and speaks the two languages with different people and in different settings and contexts.” “spontaneous” means “not rehearsed.”
Storytelling - - written or spoken, keep a record or recording
Story – retelling -***
Evaluations

16. John Wolfe and Rita Platt’s CBM3D Curriculum Based Measures, 3 Domains
Excellent example of a quick way to assess reading and writing ability. Because it is easy, a teacher can do it frequently to assess if a student is progressing.
CBM = timed reading task
3 domains – reading, speaking, and writing
WHO ATTENDED THEIR PRESENTATION?
Choose a passage at the student’s actual reading level (not grade level)
Student reads out loud for one minute (teacher scores words/minute) and student finishes the passage silently
Student orally re-tells the story
Teacher scores comprehension rubric
Teacher scores speaking level
Student does a written re-tell using visual support (teacher scores)
Repeat after a period of time. Check for progress.***

17. Evaluations at the Classroom Level
Focus on Student’s strengths
Observation
Conversation samples
Storytelling
Story re-telling
Portfolios
Curriculum based assessment
Family interview
Portfolios - - excellent way to track progress over time
Curriculum based assessment steps
Determine student’s current ability (pre-test)
Determine intervention
Carry out intervention (instruction)
Test to monitor progress (post-test)
This type of testing is more dynamic than a proficiency test or IQ test that is unrelated to what the student has actually studied
Finally, the student’s family should be involved as they provide valuable insight into the student’s behavior and development in his/her first language and in social settings
Basically, this list is about documenting more authentic forms of assessment in the classroom.
These authentic assessments can be done by the general education teacher and/or the ELL teacher.
Everything taken together will give you a fuller picture of the student’s actual ability***
Evaluations

18. Is Cultural Bias a Factor?
Ask - - how many ELLs are being referred?
Consider the possibility that behaviors are normal (handout)
Requirements for a FIE for an ELL
Yes?
Does the problem exist across contexts (gen. ed. Class, ELL class, and at home)? X
Has the family been involved and voiced concerns?
Is the student unable to follow directions in his first language?
Is the student unable to read in his first language after receiving instruction?
Do native speakers of the student’s first language have trouble understanding the student?
Has the student’s progress been significantly different from peers that started at the same level of English proficiency and received comparable instruction?
Are there NO other variables (like school attendance) that could explain the child’s difficulties?
ELL teacher needs to be relentless in asking if the observed behaviors could be due to culture or Lang. Acq.***
determine if bias is a factor:
Rule of thumb - - how many ELLs are being referred? “If majority of ELLs are not making progress, instruction needs to be modified.” In other words, if the majority of ELLs are not making progress, it is the TEACHERS’ not the STUDENTS’ problem.***
Another more specific way to rule out bias is to consider the student’s behaviors in light of cultural and linguistic norms, values, and expectations.
HANDOUT – complete list of the behaviors that overlap between the two categories. (story about me in Peru, little boy from Japan)***
Most helpful chart for me.
Original purpose was for the Multi-disciplinary team to use before a Full and Individual Evaluation. Now, RTI must be used before any Full and Individual Evaluation, but this is actually really helpful for ELL teachers.
READ FACTORS - - ALL MUST BE YES
***
Ortiz and Yates (2002)
Evaluations

19. Formal Assessment Considerations
IQ and Achievement tests – not required, but heavily used
Use a bilingual one (Bateria III)
What should a Full and Individual Evaluation consist of for an ELL?
IDEA 2004 states that schools do NOT have to establish the discrepancy between IQ and achievement; however, schools still typically will administer these assessment tools because they like to have the results documented.
If your school district is going to administer an IQ test, be sure that the correct test is chosen and that it is administered correctly. Any deviations from the standard procedure should be recorded and noted when taking the validity and reliability of the test into consideration. Remember – YOU may be the Lang. Acq. Advocate on the MDT.***
Ideally a bilingual test is available. In the case of Spanish speakers, the Bateria III is an option. What is the Bateria III? ***
Assessments

20. Riverside Publishing “Bateria III” (2011)
Positives
Bilingual Spanish and English
“Credits knowledge regardless of language specificity”
Built-in qualifying test determines if the student is reliably tested with the bilingual version
Negatives
Normed to 1,413 students from 7 Spanish-speaking countries and 279 students from the USA
Riverside Publishing “Bateria III” (2011)
Competent interpretation:
graduate-level training in cognitive ability, language, and academic achievement assessment
knowledge of Spanish language development
if appropriate to the subject, knowledge of the impact of second-language acquisition
a background in diagnostic decision-making
Riverside Publishing “Bateria III” (2011)
Read Positives of the Bateria III ***
Discuss Negatives - - Not truly comparing an ELL to his/her peers. Still concern about dialect.
Remember the recommendation that the MDT have one person trained in language acquisition? Riverside Publishing, (publisher Woodcock-Johnson Bateria III) lists the ideal qualifications for the person performing the test interpretation. *** Interpretation requires a higher level of knowledge and experience than is required for test administration. Competent interpretation requires graduate-level training in cognitive ability, language, and academic achievement assessment, knowledge of Spanish language development (and, if appropriate to the subject, knowledge of the impact of second-language acquisition), and a background in diagnostic decision-making.
That means that the person interpreting the results should not be your school psychologist unless he or she meets these qualifications. Researchers have estimated that 25% of bias is in the assessment instrument and 75% of bias is in the interpretation of the results.
Spanish and English bilinguals are somewhat easier. What do you do if the student speaks an under-represented language?***
Assessments

21. Formal Assessment Considerations
IQ and Achievement tests – not required, but heavily used
Use a bilingual one (Bateria III)
Use a native and English language test and combine results
English version administered by a bilingual assessor or trained translator and assessor
Allow client to explain why the “incorrect” answer was selected
Indicate, in writing, all adaptations and procedures followed
Use a variety of assessment tools to get a full picture of the student’s strengths
Not as practical, not as reliable, but much more valid and authentic
Report all formal and informal results and look for patterns of strengths and weaknesses
You must advocate for the use of a Native Language AND English test. Testing personnel can combine the results.
That does not mean to just add the results together but rather to take results from both tests and look for patterns.***
Additionally, an English test can be administered by a bilingual assessor or trained translator and assessor***
Sometimes, students can have a reasonable explanation for why they chose an “incorrect” answer, and this information should be taken into consideration by the test interpreter. ***
Most importantly, be sure that testing personnel are recording all adaptations and procedures in WRITING***
Finally, use the results from a variety of assessment tools (formal and informal) - - Remember the list? Storytelling, story re-telling, portfolios, observation, conversation samples, and curriculum based assessment***
Report ALL results (not just the IQ test and grades) and look for patterns.***
Assessments

22. Documents required in the Identification process in a Rural Minnesota Middle School in 2011
Documentation from general classroom teacher
Standardized test scores
Classroom grades
Behavior referrals
Information on peer relationships
Formal assessment
Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement and Test of Cognitive Ability or Bateria III
Non-verbal IQ test
Observations
Let’s take a look at the documentation required at one MN Middle School in 2011.
Strengths? – some informal assessment is used
Weaknesses? – heavy dependence on standardized test scores and grades***
Probably not surprising that they recently received a citation for disproportionate representation.***
Now, their new model of intervention is based on the Response to Intervention model ***
Citation received for disproportionate representation of minorities in Special Education classes.
Application

23. Personal Application In groups with 3 or 4 people, discuss:
Have you had a student who you suspected of having a LD?
What did you do?
What was helpful/not helpful as you worked through the issues?
What would you do differently?
Who has worked with a student suspected of having a learning disability?
Raise hands
Look around
Identify someone near you who has had some experience with this
Join that person for a discussion

24. Response to Intervention (RTI)
Tier 3 5%
Individual instruction
Tier 2
15%
Small group intervention
Many schools (such as the school in my example) are moving to the Response to Intervention model to reduce disproportionate representation and also to identify struggling students BEFORE they get to the point of failure.
This is about instruction, not assessment + no time =
One comment only -
Tier 2 – ESL classes are not an appropriate Tier 2 intervention
***
Tier 1
80%
High quality general classroom instruction
Klingner, Hoover, Baca (2008)

25. Excellent Resources Conclusion
Why Do English Language Learners Struggle with Reading?:
Distinguishing Language Acquisition From Learning Disabilities
Edited By: Klingner, Hoover, and Baca (2008)
So after today’s presentation, I hope you have a better understanding of some of the challenges faced when trying to assess ELLs for a LD, why current assessments are not working well, and some authentic, non-discriminatory approaches for use in the classroom as you gather information.
If you teach ESL in a k-12 school in America or even internationally, you will be faced with this issue.
When that day comes, REMEMBER THESE BOOKS.
Why do English Language Learners Struggle with Reading? Is readable, practical, good starting point, contains checklists
Communication Disorders in Multicultural and International Populations has very culturally specific information, including different cultures’ history of and attitude toward dealing with special education issues and tips for assessment with each group.****
Communication Disorders in Multicultural and International Populations
Dolores E. Battle (2012)
Conclusion

26. Why does it really matter?
After 3 years of special education services, Hispanic students diagnosed with learning disabilities had actually lost ground. Their IQ scores were lower than they had been at entry into special education, while their achievement scores were at essentially the same levels as they had been.
Ortiz and Yates (2002)
In conclusion, some of you may be asking “why does this really matter?” Isn’t having an ELL student in Special Education in some ways a good thing? They get extra help and smaller classes; it may be a benefit to them. Right?***
Wrong. READ DESCRIPTION.
Generally, as a teacher, it is not my goal for my students to lose IQ points or even maintain achievement levels. If my students are not progressing, then something is WRONG. It is my job as an educator to find out what that “something” is.
Conclusion

27. Resources
Artiles, Alfredo et al. “English-Language Learner Representation in Special Education in California Urban School Districts.” Racial Inequality in Special Education. Ed. Losen, Daniel and Gary Orfield. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, Print.
Klingner, Janette, John Hoover, and Leonard Baca. Why Do English Language Learners Struggle With Reading? Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Print.
Ortiz, Alba and James Yates. “Considerations in the Assessment of English Language Learners Referred to Special Education.” English Language Learners with Special Education Needs. Ed. Artiles, Alfredo and Alba Ortiz. Illinois: Delta Systems Co,

28. Contact me!
University of Wisconsin-River Falls 421 S. Third St. River Falls, WI 54022