1. Adults as context for social learning Prague 2007 17th EECERA Conference: Crossing borders

2. AUTHOR Liv Gjems Associate professor, Dr. polit Vestfold University College Liv.Gjems@hive.no Vestfold University College Faculty of Education Early Childhood Education Research Centre P.O. Box 2243 3113-Toensberg Norway www.hive.no

3. Introduction Investigation of children’s understanding of social phenomena in two different contexts. 1.A false belief test.(Perner, Leekam and Wimmer 1987) 2. Study of children’s narratives told to teachers in everyday contexts in kindergarten. The purpose of the study is to investigate the importance of teachers talk in children’s learning. (Hayes & Matusov 2005; Kontos, 1999)

4. Essential perspectives in the individual-oriented theories on children’s social learning Language learning and social interactions may be regarded as relevant, but not as a primary force behind a child’s development (Astington & Jenkins 1995, Gopnik 1993).

5. Essential perspectives in social-cultural- oriented theories on children’s social learning -Children’s language interactions and behaviour are interpreted as possible manifestations of their understanding of other peoples’ beliefs and actions. -Through narrating a child learns about other people and cultural practices. Bruner 1990

6. The study 1. Conducting a false belief test. 2. Video-observation of children’s spontaneous presentation of narratives to their teacher during playtime in kindergarten. 3. In dept study of: Caroline, aged 3.0 – 3.8 years. Åge, aged 4.0 – 4.8years.

7. Methods: 1. The false belief test: ( based on individual oriented theories) The smarties test: (Perner, Leekam & Wimmer,1987) Experiment leader: what do you think is in this box? Child: Candy (then the child is shown that there are pencils in the candy box). Experiment leader: What did you think was in the box? Child: pencils. Experiment leader: if we ask your friend to come in here now – what do you think she might think is in the box? Child: pencils.

8. Methods: 2. The study of children’s narratives: (based on social - cultural oriented theories) - Six children were video-observed for eight months in everyday context. - Caroline, 3.0 – 3.8 years presented 10 narratives. Åge, 4.0 – 4.8 years presented 23 narratives. - Teachers’ interaction.

9. Findings Both Åge and Caroline failed to pass the false belief test both in the beginning and in the end of the observation period. In their narratives they both expressed that they understood that the teacher had beliefs that differed from what they themselves knew or thought.

10. Åge’s narrative about visiting daddy’s job: 1Teacher(TEA): what do your daddy do at work -? 2ÅGE: he makes the food -! [= looks at the teacher] 3TEA: he makes food -? [= surprised] 4TEA: no::: [= rejecting] 5TEA: he doesn’t make any food -! [= definitely] 6TEA: doesn’t he sell such things that people need when they shall make a meal then -? [= engaged] 7ÅGE: yes: -! [= nods and looks pleased with this clarification] 8TEA: I thought that was your daddy’s job - 9TEA: that he sold knives and +... knives and casseroles and pans -? 10TEA: and everything else that they need in the kitchen [!] when we -? 11ÅGE: [!]we only +...- [= he shakes his head energetically, and tries to stop the teachers talk] 12ÅGE: no -! 13ÅGE: it’s not like that - 14ÅGE: it’s +... just that we e::at when we are at daddy’s – [= explains in a precocious way] 15TEA: oh – he makes a meal so that you can eat while you are working– [= clarified tone, smiles at Åge] 16ÅGE: [= smiles a large smile and nods]

11. Caroline’s narrative about ghosts 1CAR: I paint a gho::st -! [= whispering, ghostly voice, looks at the teacher with frightened eyes] 2TEA: gho::st: ye -? [= imitates Caroline’s ghostly voice] 3CAR: are you scared -? [= looks confidently at the teacher] 4TEA: do I get scared -? [= looks thoughtful at Caroline] 5CAR: [= nods] 6TEA: no -! 7TEA: I am not that scared of ghosts - [= looks seriously at Caroline] 8TEA: are you -? [= interested, engaged tone of voice] 9CAR: yes - [= nods] 10CAR: if there are coming ghosts I’ll get afraid – [= serious tone of voice] 11TEA: you think they are scary -? [= exploring] 12CAR: [= nods and continues to tell about a Halloween visit last weekend]

12. Discussion 1. Children that do not master a false belief test, do not lack an understanding of other people’s thoughts? (Nelson et al., 1998) 2.Children learn through active participation with more experienced peers and adults that mediate cultural knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978). 3.The question is what kind of language practices that will mediate social knowledge, language learning and cognitive support to a child?

13. Discussion Ruqaiya Hasan (2002) Prefaced questions and Assumptive questions

14. Conclusions Children’s understanding and creating of meaning are attached to context. - Conclusions from testing of knowledge in early childhood may be misleading. - Teachers are important participants in children’s learning.

15. References Astington, J., & Jenkins, J. (1995). Theory of Mind Development and Social Understanding. In J. Dunn (Ed.), Cognition and Emotion no. 9 (2/3) (pp. 151 - 165). Gopnik, A. (1993). How we know our minds: The illusion of first-person knowledge of intentionality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16. Hasan, R. (2002). Semiotic Mediation and Mental Development in Pluralistic Societies: Some Implications for tomorrows Schooling. In G. Wells & G. Glaston (Eds.), Learning for Life in the 21th Century: socio-cultural perspectives on the future education: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Hayes, R., & Matusov, E. (2005). Designing for dialogue in place of teacher talk and student silence. Culture and Psychology, 11 (3), 339 - 357. Kontos, S. (1999a). Preschool teachers' talk, roles and activities settings during free play. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,, 14 (3), 362 - 382. Nelson, K. (1996). Language in Cognitive Development. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Nelson, K. (2003). Narrative Self, Myth and Memory: Emergence of the Cultural Self. In R. Fivush & C. Haden (Eds.), Autobiographical Memory and the Construction of a Narrative Self: Developmental and Cultural Perspectives: Oxford University Press. Nelson, K., Plesa, D., & Hensler, S. (1998). Children’s Theory of Mind: An Experiential Interpretation. Human Development, 41. Perner, J., Leekam, S. R., & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-years olds’ difficulty with false beliefs. The case for a conceptual deficit. British journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 125 - 137. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological Processes. Cambridge MA: Harvard University press. Wellman, H. M., D., C., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-Analysis of Theory-of-Mind Development: the Truth about the False Belief. Child Development, Volume 72, Number 3, 655 - 684.