1. Religion in Western sociology Universalist discourses and particularist indicators Introduction: do discourses and indicators apply beyond Western nations?; religion from a sociological and empirical (large-scale survey) perspective Discourses: secularization, religious pluralism, supply- side theory Indicators: theory on religion as a universal condition humaine, but indicators applying to Western markets only; key concepts from EVS/WVS, ISSP and RAMP Conclusions Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

2. Discourses Secularization Unclear content: fall church membership and visits; or orientation on worldly issues (the immanent); or waning interest in decisive reality above daily reality (from the divine to the human); or declining role religion in daily lives and society Imprecise cause: modernization heralding reason and manifest experiences (is a belief itself); all facets of modernization cause secularization or just a few and why exactly Contradicting facts: popularity ‘new’ movements; rising fundamentalism; no linear decline; European or American exceptionalism (Americans forget that state and pace secularization in Europe differs) Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

3. Discourses Secularization A three level perspective (Dobbelaere): –societal : functional differentiation; secular institutions take over roles of the religious (education, health care) –subsystem : functional rationality governs subsystems, e.g., economy, politics, etc., and even new religions (offering immediate insights and potencies) –individual : secularization-in-mind; loose communities, individualization of choices, compartimentalization of orientations (religious bricolage, religion à la carte, including mix from popculture, science etc.) Empirical search for links of levels: still open Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

4. Discourses Religious pluralism Religion, geo-identity, and power (a.o. Martin): relationships national, e.g., identity and authority –Complete pluralism: relationships weak, competing denominations (US?) –Qualified pluralism: stronger relationships, competition between (within) churches and elites (UK, Scandinavia) –Segmented pluralism: rival groups and subcultural elites in separate regions (NL, Germany) The stronger the power ties to institutions, the longer the presence of churches at least at the elite level (secularization weaker in fully Catholic societies) Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

5. Discourses Religious pluralism Diversifying religious ‘markets’ (Luckmann, Norris & Inglehart, Jagodzinski) –Theory of the invisible religion: emergence religion that do not need institutional framework AND provide meaning; fits pluriform society –Problem: What to NOT include as religious, religion: e.g., search for charismatic power (can be sports team) that helps block existential questions –Theory of rise, decline, and alternatives: rise in insecure societies; in secure decline AND search for meaning of life; answers in non-hierarchical, non- totalist, non-absolutist, tailor-made initiatives Religiosity is not in decline, traditional forms are: secularization theory is partly right/wrong Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

6. Discourses Supply-side theory Religion as a market place (Stark, Iannaccone, Fink) : Engagement stimulated if religions compete (opposes secularization notion that competition undermines authority): religions aim for market share -> thus accommodate members -> higher religious activity citizenry Problem: tests with church membership; proper proxy of activity?; cross-cultural validity?; new religions not always membership-based; in nations in which competition is outlawed, activity is high (Arab world) Problem 2: idea of free choice is disputable, but not tested; idea of stable demand, variable supply based on disputable and tautologic notion of universal need for religion Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

7. Indicators Or, how to make Western religious activity universal European Values Study (EVS)/World Values Survey (WVS): –Based in search for religious values –1981 – 1990 – 1999/2000 –Almost all European countries in last EVS-wave International Social Survey Programme (ISSP): –Changing subjects each wave/module –Religion: 1991 – 1998 – 2008 –About 40 Western and non-Western countries Religious and Moral Pluralism (RAMP): –Aimed at secularization debate –1997-1999 data –11 European countries Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

8. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Denomination: ‘Do you (RAMP: considering yourself to) belong to a religious denomination?’ In ISSP too much variation in wordings. Is first question in EVS/WVS and only opportunity for those adhering to non- monotheistic religions; all subsequent questions presuppose monotheism and sometimes simply Christianity: God as a singular entity, whose word is in the Bible, to whom you can have personal relationship The question of forced choice (religion A or B) and the theoretical debate on bricolage: no good indicator for the latter Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

9. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Church attendance: EVS/WVS/RAMP: ‘How often do you attend religious services’ in variable Likert-scale formats (is not same as attending church which presupposed community/organization and building); ISSP: again much variation in wording across countries; also ‘taking part in activities or organizations of a church or place of worship other than attending services’ Most presuppose activity one undergoes passively (a service) that is offered by professional (priest, etc.): religions that have institutionalized ceremonies with authority figures who serve as middlemen between God and attendees only Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

10. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Religious practices: EVS: ‘Do you take some moments of prayer, meditation or contemplation or something like that’ (combining all reflexive action in one Q; yet answer is ‘yes’ or ‘no’); In RAMP also Q on religious services for birth, marriage, and death, but only on importance of these services, not on the practice No info on frequencies of practices today, even when secularization and supply-side theory typically call for such info (in general or ‘only’ at crucial life-events) Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

11. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Religious beliefs: beliefs in doctrines: God, life after death, hell, heaven, sin, and telepathy (and seperately re-incarnation – with explanation - and angels – with no explanation). EVS: ‘yes’ or ‘no’; ISSP also ‘probably’ yes or no; RAMP also on salvation (very Christian wording) and concept of Jesus More precise on the concept of God: God with whom you can have a personal relationship (builds on Judeo- Christian idea that God takes interest in, interacts with person) or some life force (singular!). In ISSP very confusing choices and one-sided question if there is a God who concerns Himself with humans (where is the interaction?). RAMP also ‘God as something inside each person instead of out there’: a forced choice leaving no room for simultaneously possible concepts Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

12. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Importance of religion: EVS/WVS: societal and individual; church adequate to moral needs, problems of family life, man’s (!) spiritual needs, social problems we face (only ‘yes’ or ‘no’); ISSP on power church in society and (only 1998) agreement with better country if religion less influence; RAMP retrospective on level of influence on severlal life domains, but uses wordings such ‘should main religions be consulted when making laws on moral issues; all (except ISSP 1998) include importance God in (daily) life (and on making important decisions). No real assessment of societal role of church, needed for testing secularization theiory possible with EVS/WVS, but this is maybe too much to ask of surveys of individuals! Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

13. Indicators Exploring the codebooks Religiosity: EVS/WVS: ‘Whether or nog belonging to church, are you religious person, not a religious person or absolute atheist’ (limited choice!); and thinking of meaning of life. ISSP: self-assessment on 7-point Likert-scale ‘extremely (non) religious’. RAMP: idem, and: ‘Do you have a spiritual life…something that goes beyond merely (!!!) intellectual and emotional life’ (suggestive); ‘feel close to church’ (helas filtered for belongers); ‘ever had a religious experience… of something that exists… which you may call God’ (a regretful addition, making it again monotheist and probably associated with traditional beliefs) Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

14. Indicators Exploring the codebooks New religions or non-traditional experiences of transcendence: EVS: e.g., feeling in touch with something far away, with someone who died (could also be part of traditional beliefs; no sharp distinction between old-new); Q on new religions only in 1999: ‘believe in supernatural forces… a Mighty Power, God, a Spirit…’ (again no distinction old-new; believers in the ‘traditional’ God could also agree); also possession of/believe in lucky charm, mascot, talisman; ISSP: lucky charms bring luck, fortune tellers foresee future, person’s star sign affect course of future, etc.: true- untrue 4 point Likert (no info on participation); more in RAMP: prosession of a crucifix or Saint Christopher medal (Catholic items!) All seem to dwell on the clairvoyant, new age type of experiences; no serious alternative religions considered, and lacking proper old-new distinctions Henk Vinken – KGU Tokyo Study Group Meeting – Tokyo, May 19, 2006

15. Conclusions Majority Q Western (idea personal God; choose one religion; attend services lead by middlemen, etc.), Christian, on doctrinal issues between Christian factions, or simply only Catholic Lack insights non-monotheist, non-traditional religions Problem if these survey go beyond Western contexts and are fielded unchanged But also in West more polytheist, non-traditional belief systems on the rise (due to immigration and globalization) and thus not tapped

16. Conclusions The reviewed surveys are –Non-inclusive –‘Othering’ (Masuzawa) –Missing the key theoretical issues Surveys should give respondents more options, come up with better questions, go beyond the mystic, clairvoyant and obscure (is ‘othering’ as well), start with addressing what it means to be religious in other cultures with floroushing non-institutionalized, individualized religious activities