1. Chapter 30 to 35 Applied mineralogy

2. Introduction to applied mineralogy Practical application of mineralogical knowledge Practical application of mineralogical knowledge Mineralogy – major economic significance Mineralogy – major economic significance Gemology (Ch 31), mineral prospecting, mineral extraction, chemical plants, cement industry (Ch 32), medicine & environmental mineralogy (Ch 33) Gemology (Ch 31), mineral prospecting, mineral extraction, chemical plants, cement industry (Ch 32), medicine & environmental mineralogy (Ch 33) Growing field with developing needs – new branches of applied mineralogy develop Growing field with developing needs – new branches of applied mineralogy develop Indispensable in geology and petrology Indispensable in geology and petrology

3. Chapter 30 Metalliferous mineral deposits Prospecting mineralogy Prospecting mineralogy Economically important minerals Economically important minerals Geological setting of metal deposits Geological setting of metal deposits Convergent margins Convergent margins Divergent margins Divergent margins Precambrian shields Precambrian shields Sedimentary basins Sedimentary basins

4. Chapter 30 Prospecting mineralogy Occurrence and identification of mineral deposits, determine mineralogical composition to classify and determine extractability Occurrence and identification of mineral deposits, determine mineralogical composition to classify and determine extractability Traditionally rely on visual identification in field and sample collection for laboratory investigations Traditionally rely on visual identification in field and sample collection for laboratory investigations Mineralogical features primary criteria for prospecting Mineralogical features primary criteria for prospecting Currently more sophisticated analytical techniques Currently more sophisticated analytical techniques Mineralogy knowledge integrated with geochemistry, petrology and structural geology Mineralogy knowledge integrated with geochemistry, petrology and structural geology Mineralogical prospecting partly replaced by remote sensing techniques Mineralogical prospecting partly replaced by remote sensing techniques Use electromagnetic spectrum reflected from different type of minerals on earth surface Use electromagnetic spectrum reflected from different type of minerals on earth surface Spatial distribution of mineral types identified on large scale Spatial distribution of mineral types identified on large scale Especially useful in iron and gold deposits Especially useful in iron and gold deposits

5. Chapter 30 Economically important minerals Table 30.1 and 30.2 Table 30.1 and 30.2 Metalliferous minerals (Chapter 30) Metalliferous minerals (Chapter 30) Ferrous metals:Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr, Si, Mo, Co, W Ferrous metals:Fe, Mn, Ni, Cr, Si, Mo, Co, W Nonferrous base metals:Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn, Hg Nonferrous base metals:Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn, Hg Nonferrous light metals:Al, Mg, Ti, Be Nonferrous light metals:Al, Mg, Ti, Be Precious metals:Au, Pt, Ir, Ag Precious metals:Au, Pt, Ir, Ag Gemstones (Chapter 31) Gemstones (Chapter 31) Diamond Diamond Colour gems:Corundum, beryl, tourmaline, topaz Colour gems:Corundum, beryl, tourmaline, topaz Cement minerals (Chapter 32) Cement minerals (Chapter 32) Calcite, clay, gypsum Calcite, clay, gypsum

6. Chapter 30 Metal deposits Many metal deposits are related to RECENT plate tectonic activity Many metal deposits are related to RECENT plate tectonic activity Convergent margins Convergent margins Melting of subducting sediments along continental shelf produce volcanism and batholithic intrusions Melting of subducting sediments along continental shelf produce volcanism and batholithic intrusions Igneous activity drives hydrothermal processes Igneous activity drives hydrothermal processes Co and Mo, Hg Co and Mo, Hg Divergent margins Divergent margins Largest magma extrusions Largest magma extrusions Seawater penetrates seafloor, heat up, react with basalt and becomes acidic Seawater penetrates seafloor, heat up, react with basalt and becomes acidic Acidic water dissolves Cu, Pb, Zn, Co, Mn as trace elements from basalt, transport metals and concentrate them when precipitated as sulfides and oxides when in contact with cold seawater (VMS deposits) Acidic water dissolves Cu, Pb, Zn, Co, Mn as trace elements from basalt, transport metals and concentrate them when precipitated as sulfides and oxides when in contact with cold seawater (VMS deposits)

7. Chapter 30 Metal deposits (cont) Precambrian shields Precambrian shields Primary deposits of Cr, Ni, Pt much older Primary deposits of Cr, Ni, Pt much older Orthogneisses and mafic to ultramafic volcanics (greenstone belts) occur on these shields Orthogneisses and mafic to ultramafic volcanics (greenstone belts) occur on these shields Komatiites: ultramafic, very high T magma from great depths Komatiites: ultramafic, very high T magma from great depths Gold veins at contact with komatiites and surrounding granite – Witwatersrand (placer derived from above) Gold veins at contact with komatiites and surrounding granite – Witwatersrand (placer derived from above) Layered chromite – Bushveld Complex: Cr, Pt, Cr-magnetitie, V Layered chromite – Bushveld Complex: Cr, Pt, Cr-magnetitie, V Sedimentary basins Sedimentary basins BIFs: Algoma-type and Superior-type BIFs: Algoma-type and Superior-type Algoma: submarine hot springs release Fe-rich hydrothermal solutions in sedimentary basins alternated with Si-rich layers Algoma: submarine hot springs release Fe-rich hydrothermal solutions in sedimentary basins alternated with Si-rich layers Superior-type: no volcanism, associated with limestones, formed at shallow-water coastal environments, Fe and Si layers alternatively brought from deep ocean to coast by upwelling currents Superior-type: no volcanism, associated with limestones, formed at shallow-water coastal environments, Fe and Si layers alternatively brought from deep ocean to coast by upwelling currents

8. Chapter 30 Metal deposits

9. Chapter 31 Gemstones Introduction Introduction Instruments used by gemologists Instruments used by gemologists Important gems Important gems Gemstone enhancements Gemstone enhancements Crystal synthesis Crystal synthesis

10. Chapter 31 Introduction Def: minerals highly valued for beauty, durability and rarity Def: minerals highly valued for beauty, durability and rarity Most precious gems exceed value of same mass of gold by 3000 times Most precious gems exceed value of same mass of gold by 3000 times Many gems artificially produced for a fraction of the price Many gems artificially produced for a fraction of the price Gems mostly permanent, BUT: some coloured gems could lose colour due to sunlight or heat exposure. Gems mostly permanent, BUT: some coloured gems could lose colour due to sunlight or heat exposure. Small worldwide production in kg, but yearly value equals that of cement production. Small worldwide production in kg, but yearly value equals that of cement production.

11. Chapter 31 Gemology instruments Similar to mineralogical instruments – but has to be non-destructive. Similar to mineralogical instruments – but has to be non-destructive. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence on gem surfaces Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence on gem surfaces NB – binocular gemological microscope NB – binocular gemological microscope Dark / light field illumination to check inclusions, growth features, treatment and synthesis Dark / light field illumination to check inclusions, growth features, treatment and synthesis Gem refractometer, spectroscope, polariscope Gem refractometer, spectroscope, polariscope

12. Chapter 31 Important Gems Diamonds – upper mantle, kimberlites Diamonds – upper mantle, kimberlites Emerald – hydrothermal systems Emerald – hydrothermal systems Ruby, sapphire – high T environments: alkaline magmas and aluminous metamorphic rocks Ruby, sapphire – high T environments: alkaline magmas and aluminous metamorphic rocks Aquamarine, topaz, tourmaline - pegmatites Aquamarine, topaz, tourmaline - pegmatites

13. Chapter 31 Gemstone enhancements Improve appearance by: Improve appearance by: Cutting Cutting Heating to improve colour – often produce damage and often non-permanent Heating to improve colour – often produce damage and often non-permanent Filling cracks – can wear off, not as durable Filling cracks – can wear off, not as durable Dying – not stable, do not penetrate entire crystal Dying – not stable, do not penetrate entire crystal Radiation to induce colour – also not always permanent Radiation to induce colour – also not always permanent

14. Chapter 31 Crystal synthesis Large market for synthetic gems, also for industrial use Large market for synthetic gems, also for industrial use Different methods Different methods Powder flame fusion: ruby and sapphire Powder flame fusion: ruby and sapphire Czochralski melt growth: rubies for lasers, silicon crystals, garnets Czochralski melt growth: rubies for lasers, silicon crystals, garnets Flux growth: emeralds Flux growth: emeralds Hydrothermal growth: quartz Hydrothermal growth: quartz Ultra-high pressure: diamond Ultra-high pressure: diamond

15. Chapter 32 Cement minerals Significance of cement Significance of cement Some features of nonhydraulic cements Some features of nonhydraulic cements Portland cement Portland cement Some problems with concrete Some problems with concrete

16. Chapter 32 Significance of cement Concrete is most widely used structural material in world today. Concrete is most widely used structural material in world today. 1 billion tonnes of Portland cement converted into 11.5 billion tonnes of concrete 1 billion tonnes of Portland cement converted into 11.5 billion tonnes of concrete 5 x more than steel consumption 5 x more than steel consumption Much weaker than steel, but preferred Much weaker than steel, but preferred Resistance to water Resistance to water Formed into many shapes and sizes Formed into many shapes and sizes Cheapest and most readily available building material Cheapest and most readily available building material Concrete: cement + aggregate ( sand, gravel and/or crushed rock) Concrete: cement + aggregate ( sand, gravel and/or crushed rock)

17. Chapter 32 Types of cement Non-hydraulic cements Non-hydraulic cements Harden by calcination; not resistant to water Harden by calcination; not resistant to water Minerals: Gypsym from anhydrite; calcite from lime Minerals: Gypsym from anhydrite; calcite from lime Hydraulic cements Hydraulic cements Harden by reacting with water; water resistant Harden by reacting with water; water resistant Portland cement: Ca-silicates and Ca-carbonates, with Al- and Fe-oxides Portland cement: Ca-silicates and Ca-carbonates, with Al- and Fe-oxides

18. Chapter 32 Concrete problems Sulfate attack Sulfate attack Sulfate in soil, seawater, acid rain Sulfate in soil, seawater, acid rain Cracking, permeability increase, loss of strength Cracking, permeability increase, loss of strength Mainly when gypsum form when sulfate react with cement minerals and has a volume increase Mainly when gypsum form when sulfate react with cement minerals and has a volume increase Alkali-silica reaction Alkali-silica reaction Siliceous minerals: opal, microcrystalline quartz, deformed quartz are open for this reaction with alkali ions in pore system of cement: destroys cement, increase permeability, swellling Siliceous minerals: opal, microcrystalline quartz, deformed quartz are open for this reaction with alkali ions in pore system of cement: destroys cement, increase permeability, swellling Corrosion Corrosion Steel bars corroded when solution enters concrete; corrosion products have high volume – cause cracking around steel Steel bars corroded when solution enters concrete; corrosion products have high volume – cause cracking around steel

19. Chapter 33 Minerals and human health Mineral-like materials in human body Mineral-like materials in human body Apatite and other phosphate minerals Apatite and other phosphate minerals Mostly as important part of bones and teeth Mostly as important part of bones and teeth Also occurs as abnormal growths as kidney, urinary, and gall stones; tumors; in lungs, glands, heart and arteries Also occurs as abnormal growths as kidney, urinary, and gall stones; tumors; in lungs, glands, heart and arteries Calcite, aragonite and vaterite Calcite, aragonite and vaterite Constructive part of teeth Constructive part of teeth Abnormal growths in glands, tumors, kidneys and lungs Abnormal growths in glands, tumors, kidneys and lungs Magnetite, hematite, goethite, lepidocrocite Magnetite, hematite, goethite, lepidocrocite Urinary bladders Urinary bladders Also oxalates, urates and other organic compounds Also oxalates, urates and other organic compounds

20. Chapter 33 Minerals and human health Minerals in nutrition Minerals in nutrition Halite – common mineral consciously ingested by humans Halite – common mineral consciously ingested by humans Also barite – filling in chocolate Also barite – filling in chocolate Kaolinite – in ice creams – stabilize when melting Kaolinite – in ice creams – stabilize when melting

21. Chapter 33 Minerals and human health Minerals in nutrition (continued) Minerals in nutrition (continued) Inorganic compounds known in market as ‘minerals’ – important as nutritional additives along with vitamins Inorganic compounds known in market as ‘minerals’ – important as nutritional additives along with vitamins Macrominerals: Ca, Cl, Mg, P, K, Na, S – needed in large quantities Macrominerals: Ca, Cl, Mg, P, K, Na, S – needed in large quantities Microminerals: Cr, Co, F, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn – needed in trace quantities Microminerals: Cr, Co, F, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn – needed in trace quantities Mostly derived from ‘real minerals’ Mostly derived from ‘real minerals’ Deficiency as well as too high concentration of most of these can cause severe health effects Deficiency as well as too high concentration of most of these can cause severe health effects

22. Chapter 33 Minerals and human health Minerals as health hazards Minerals as health hazards Many minerals has been documented to cause pulmonary diseases: Many minerals has been documented to cause pulmonary diseases: Riebeckite – mesothelioma Riebeckite – mesothelioma Grunerite, actinolite, antophyllite, tremolite and chrysotile – asbestosis Grunerite, actinolite, antophyllite, tremolite and chrysotile – asbestosis Quartz – silicosis Quartz – silicosis Coal - emphysema (pneumoconiosis) Coal - emphysema (pneumoconiosis) Chemical contamination by mining Chemical contamination by mining Atmosphere, water (ground and surface) Atmosphere, water (ground and surface)

23. Chapter 34 Minerals in the solar system Current theory for universe: ‘Big Bang’ produce elements: Current theory for universe: ‘Big Bang’ produce elements: Firstly light elements: He and H Firstly light elements: He and H During cooling denser matter condense and collapse – nuclear fusion: up to Fe and Ni During cooling denser matter condense and collapse – nuclear fusion: up to Fe and Ni Stellar explosions – supernovae: heavier elements Stellar explosions – supernovae: heavier elements Meteorites Meteorites NB information on solar space mineralogy NB information on solar space mineralogy Different types: chondrites, achondrites, iron and stony iron meteorites Different types: chondrites, achondrites, iron and stony iron meteorites Many unique meteorite minerals, but also minerals common to the earth Many unique meteorite minerals, but also minerals common to the earth

24. Chapter 35 Mineral composition of earth Crust Crust Heterogenous: Sedimentary and igneous rocks; oceanic and continental crust Heterogenous: Sedimentary and igneous rocks; oceanic and continental crust Feldspars, pyroxenes, quartz, olivine, amphiboles, micas > 80% of crust Feldspars, pyroxenes, quartz, olivine, amphiboles, micas > 80% of crust Mantle Mantle Uniform Uniform Olivine, enstatite, Cr-diopside and augite, spinels, amphiboles, Ti-phlogopite, garnet, plagioclase, apatite, diamonds, chromite Olivine, enstatite, Cr-diopside and augite, spinels, amphiboles, Ti-phlogopite, garnet, plagioclase, apatite, diamonds, chromite Core Core Heavy elements Heavy elements