1. PLANS AND PURPOSES HOW VIDEOGAME GOALS SHAPE PLAYER BEHAVIOUR PhD DEFENCE 7 DECEMBER 2006 JONAS HEIDE SMITH SMITH@ITU.DK

2. PLANS AND PURPOSES 2 What is a game? A social experience An aesthetic experience A virtual training ground A part of the media ecology An arena for decision making

3. PLANS AND PURPOSES 3 There are competing theories/models of the player (and the most dominant is the Rational Player Model) How can the Rational Player Model be used analytically? What are the behavioral predictions of the model? (and how well do they explain actual play?) THESIS STRUCTURE

4. PLANS AND PURPOSES 4 The player is an entity optimizing his/her outcome within the game as defined by the objective goals. "…in every game [the player] responds in a fashion calculated to help him achieve his objectives." - game designer Greg Costikyan THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

5. PLANS AND PURPOSES 5 Bridges the gap between game and player (behavior) Explains behaviour in terms of individual/selfish reasoning Makes it closely related to Economic Man (the Beliefs/Preferences/Constraints Model) But the Rational Player Model is bolder (or more reckless): It assumes preferences THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

6. PLANS AND PURPOSES 6 Can be operationalized through economic game theory: The formal study of conflict (between agents whose choices are interrelated) THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL Alice SwervesDoes not swerve Bob Swerves Bob: 2 points Alice: 2 points Bob: 1 point Alice: 3 points Does not swerve Bob: 3 points Alice: 1 point Bob: 0 points Alice: 0 points

7. PLANS AND PURPOSES 7 Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL Competitive Semi-cooperativeCooperative

8. PLANS AND PURPOSES 8 Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL Competitive Semi-cooperativeCooperative Constant sum games (the total payoff is fixed). In two-player competitive games, no incentives for cooperation exist at all. For games with more players, such incentives may occur transitorily. Non-zero sum games which reward team- work over mutual non- cooperation but provide temptations for individuals to act selfishly. Non-zero sum games which reward players for coordinating their strategies; i.e. they reward team-work and provide no temptation for selfish play.

9. PLANS AND PURPOSES 9 Example 2: Strategicness A measure of the degree to which other players matter and the degree to which one can do anything about it THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

10. PLANS AND PURPOSES 10 THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL Strategicness Time

11. PLANS AND PURPOSES 11 THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL may open games for formal analysis… But does it accurately portray reality? THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL

12. PLANS AND PURPOSES 12 PLAYER STUDY Mashed (PS2) Champions of Norrath (PS2) Fifa 2004 (Xbox) Competitive No formal incentives to cooperate Cooperative No formal incentives to act non- cooperatively Semi-cooperative Cooperation necessary but with temptations to be selfish

13. PLANS AND PURPOSES 13 PLAYER STUDY 19 test subjects in 6 groups played all three games Sessions were videotaped from two angles All verbal statements (~ 8500) were transcribed

14. PLANS AND PURPOSES 14 PLAYER STUDY Data analysis All statements were coded August [CoN]: Just distribute them all [Albert is distributing points]. Dexterity and intelligence are probably the most important things. § ORDER, REQUEST OR SUGGEST ACTION § ADVICE, INFORMATION, OR HELP GIVEN

15. PLANS AND PURPOSES 15 PLAYER STUDY Data analysis

16. PLANS AND PURPOSES 16 PLAYER STUDY Example 1: Skill inequity Player 4 wins round 1: I really think I’m pointing, I’m just crashing 4: Hey, look at what’s on my roof! 3: [laughs] 1: Yaayy! 3: It’s completely insane 2: This is the weirdest car game I’ve ever played 3: No! 1: Then you just explode because you don’t move 2: I’m trying to shoot now, but I can’t 1: [laughs]

17. PLANS AND PURPOSES 17 PLAYER STUDY Example 2: Tension 2: I think I heard the whistle 3: Who did that? 2: I did 1: No-body’s doing anything. And red is just looking while they score. 2: Am I the keeper or what? 1: No, I am the keeper. You just have to watch for your colors. 3: Okay, let’s pull ourselves together… We need a goal. 2: I’m running deep 3: I’m with you over here. 1: No! 3: Come on, ahh he’s really slow this one 4: [laughs] 3: Stop him! 1: Nobody’s doing anything. The defence is completely gone. Yellow. 2: Well, two of us have never tried Fifa 2004 before. 1: Well I haven’t tried it either

18. PLANS AND PURPOSES 18 PLAYER STUDY Observations Players only redefined game goals jokingly, and often in order to alleviate embarrassment over collective defeat Taunts were rare, quite polite and only occurred during Mashed (competitive play) Serious criticism of other players was practically non-existent Apologies were used to acknowledge that one’s actions hurt the team Lars: I had the most unforced errors. That was me. Daniel: Where are you going? [The other players fall behind] [Laughs] Simon: No, you click through before you [read the dialogue]. I have no idea what we need to do, I’m just following. Simon: Oh, sorry. That was my mistake.

19. PLANS AND PURPOSES 19 PLAYER STUDY But was the model supported? YES Within the gamespace players acted in (apparent) alignment with the model NO In the sofa, players did not confirm the predictions (e.g. they were helpful when playing Mashed)

20. PLANS AND PURPOSES 20 PLAYER STUDY

21. PLANS AND PURPOSES 21 PLAYER STUDY Interpretation Players seek to win but this desire is subjugated by social norms defining appropriate play. Outside the gamespace, the players mitigate and modify their “rational” behavior to satisfy the social norm of fairness: Performance in the game should not be a consequence of inferior knowledge about game mechanics. Most multi-player gaming is in fact cooperative.

22. PLANS AND PURPOSES 22 PLAYER STUDY A purposeful blindness A model gives focus and precision It does not, in any simple form, grant us access to the Truth But it helps us see if we are on the right track And…

23. PLANS AND PURPOSES 23 THE END it enables us to be surprised Thank you very much!