1. Putting Error Correction into Proper Perspective Georgette Ioup Department of English University of New Orleans

2. Changing Theories of Language teaching  Stage 1 : Grammar Translation  Stage 2: Audio Lingual Method (ALM)  Stage 3: a. Communicative Competence (W. Rivers, 1968) b.L1 Acq. = L2 Acq. (Dulay & Burt, 1974)

3. Krashen’s Monitor Model Five Hypotheses  Acquisition / Learning Hypothesis  Natural Order Hypothesis  Monitor Hypothesis  Input Hypothesis  Affective Filter Hypothesis

4. Acquisition / Learning  Acquisition: Subconscious processes  Learning: Conscious formal knowledge Formal Learning Learned Grammar Monitor Natural Input Acquired Grammar Language Output

5. Input Hypothesis  Relates to Acquisition only.  We acquire by receiving Comprehensible input – input that is a little beyond our current level.  Current Level – i  Comprehensible Input - i + 1

6. Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory  Higgs & Clifford, 1982 A. Terminal 2s: Street learners with uncorrected errors B. Advocates “accuracy first’ (See also, Valette, 1991)

7. Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory  White, 1987 Certain types of errors need rule instruction. L1 French – L2 English 1.Mary studied the lesson carefully 2.Carefully Mary studied the lesson 3.*Mary studied carefully the lesson

8. Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory  Long, 1991 Focus on Form, not Focus on Forms Focus on Forms: Teaching isolated rules Focus on Form: teaching rules in context

9. Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory  Ellis, 1990 Forms that contribute little to communication tend to be ignored. They need attention.

10. Critical Responses to Krashen’s Theory  Schmidt, 1994 Must notice the gap. When there is a discrepancy between a TL form and an IL form, adults won’t notice it unless attention is drawn to it.

11. In Support of Krashen’s Theory  VanPatten, 1988 A.No evidence that “terminal learners are terminal.” B.Early focus on grammar will inhibit developing fluency.

12. In Support of Krashen’s Theory  Schwartz, 1993 LAD can only accept natural input Includes syntactic rules of Universal Grammar Excludes morphology and lexicon These two can be learned formally.

13. In Support of Krashen’s Theory Paradis, 1994 Explicit Knowledge -> Declarative Memory –Consciously accessible knowledge –Facts and Concepts Ex: Formal knowledge of grammar rules

14. In Support of Krashen’s Theory Paradis, 1994 Implicit Knowledge -> Procedural Memory –Information derived unconsciously –Skills and Processes Ex: Natural language acquisition

15. In Support of Krashen’s Theory Paradis, 1994  Declarative memory cannot translate into procedural memory.  Each uses a different part of the brain.

16. Sounding Alarms The American Scene Valette, 1991, Modern Language Journal The level of foreign language proficiency has deteriorated in the last 25 years. The median proficiency score for foreign language majors is now probably no higher than 1+. Two causes: “contact with inaccurate models and the acceptance (or non-correction) of inaccurate speech production.”

17. Sounding Alarms The British Scene Mitchell, 2000, Applied Linguistics “Grenfell (1999) has documented current disillusionment and uncertainty among the MFL professional community in England with the present National Curriculum/GCSE framework.” “…despite the focus on communication, a disappointing proportion of pupils are making the transition to creative control of the TL system.”

18. Research Comparing Implicit and Explicit Language Teaching Scott, 1989 Explicit condition performed better Alenan, 1995 The groups who received rules performed better Robinson, 1995 Instructed groups better on easy rules VanPatten & Oikkenon, 1996 Explicit rule group did worse Conflicting results could be due to monitoring

19. Research on Error Correction in Writing It is effective – improves writing proficiency –Cardell & Carno (1982) It gives no advantage over no correction –Fathman & Walley (1990) It is ineffective – doesn’t improve writing proficiency –Kepner (1991) –Semke (1984) It impedes proficiency development –Sheppard (1992)

20. Research on Error Correction in Writing  Truscott, 1996 A. Agrees with Krashen and Schwartz According to learning theory, structures learned through error correction can’t become part of the internal grammar. B. Advocates an end to grammar correction in writing It is ineffective and harmful.

21. Research on Error Correction in Writing Ferris (1999) *Argues for a role for grammar correction. *Claims studies are inclusive. *Truscott’s radical stance is premature.

22. Weakness in Focus-on- Form Research My problem with focus-on-form studies: They cover a short period of time. Similar view expressed in DeKeyser, 1977

23. Two Questions 1.Can formal instruction help, if formal learning cannot become part of the acquired grammar? 2.Why might it take a long time for the formal learning to become effective?

24. Answer to Question 1 Can instruction help? Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002) Explicit Knowledge -> Declarative Memory –Consciously accessible knowledge –Facts and Concepts Ex: Formal knowledge of grammar rules

25. Answer to Question 1 Can instruction help? Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002) Implicit Knowledge -> Procedural Memory –Information derived unconsciously –Skills and Processes Ex: Natural language acquisition

26. Answer to Question 1 Can instruction help? Paradis (1994), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002)  Declarative memory cannot translate into procedural memory.  Each uses a different part of the brain.

27. Answer to Question 1 Can instruction help? Anderson (1995), DeKeyser (2002), Hulstijn (2002), Paradis (1994)  Each time one uses a metalinguistic declarative rule,  One simultaneously builds unconscious, implicit procedural knowledge.

28. Answer to Question 1 Can instruction help? Hulstijn, 2002  Metalinguistic knowledge doesn’t actually transform into implicit knowledge.  An implicit network that is separate from and in addition to the explicit system is independently constructed.

29. Answer to Question 2 Why might it take a long time? McLaughlin (1990), DeKeyser (2001) Complex skills start as controlled processes. Given: *Time *Attention They become automatic routines. It is practice which accomplishes this.

30. Answer to Question 2 Why might it take a long time? Shriffrin & Schneider, 1986 The development of automaticity for generalized skills depends on high levels of practice. McLaughlin, 1990 “A skill must be practiced again and again and again, until no attention is required for performance.”

31. Answer to Question 2 Why might it take a long time? Anderson, 1995 A second factor is important for automaticity – feedback.

32. My Study Jenny  Immigrated to the U.S. at age 10  Mainstreamed into regular classes, no ESL  Entered university at age 19  Many fossilized grammar errors  Required to take ESL classes  Needed 7 semesters plus one summer tutoring to destabilize her errors  I argue that rule isolation and error correction destabilized her fossilized structures

33. Type of Instruction Given  Some formal rule presentation  Consistent feedback on errors in written work  Revision with error correction required

34. Two Contributions that Instruction Provided 1.Made her aware of which forms were incorrect 2.Gave her the necessary practice to change her grammar

35. Table 1 Proficiency Scores on Initial Placement and End of Semester Exams MTACMTELPCOMP Initial Placement888558 Intensive908678 Nonintensive I Time 1878881 Time 2928781 Time 3908185 Nonintensive 2 Time 18789 Time 2938987 Time 390 88

36. Figure 1. T-unit analyses of 200-word samples at 3 different levels.

37. Figure 2. Mean percent of error-free T-units per sample at 3 different levels.

38. Table 2 Comparison of Selected Errors by Level PrepTenseArticleVerb FormPlural-s Entry41819159 Midway14646 Exit42164

39. Persistent Errors 1.Because of + S “Because of my father’s restaurant short of hand.” 2.Make + Infinitive “made the car to go in reverse” Finally eradicated at exit level

40. Conclusion Focus-on-form combined with abundant contextualized practice and feedback can aid a communicative learning approach.