1. Early English History and Language
Academic Vocabulary
• barbarism, “uncivilized or primitive
behavior”
• province, “a region or country controlled by
the ancient Roman government”
• urban, “relating to a city”
• chieftain, “chief or leader “
• genesis, “origin or beginning “
Pre-History – 1066 A.D.

2. Overview of Periods of Early English History Pre-History—1066 A. D.
Pre-Rome/Pre-History  up to 55 B. C.
Roman Occupation  55 B. C. – 410 A. D.
Anglo-Saxon Period  410 – 787 A. D.
Viking Invasions  787 – 1066 A. D.
Norman Conquest begins in 1066

3. Pre-Historic / Pre-Roman ??-55 B.C.
The photo shows Stonehenge, a circular arrangement of large prehistoric stones on Salisbury Plain, in southern England. The exact purpose of Stonehenge has not been definitively established, but many scholars believe it may have been used for religious ceremonies.
Stonehenge was constructed in three phases.
It has been estimated that the three phases of the construction required more than thirty million hours of labour. The first Stonehenge was a large earthwork or Henge, comprising a ditch, bank, and the Aubrey holes, all probably built around 3100 BC. The Aubrey holes are round pits in the chalk, about one metre wide and deep, with steep sides and flat bottoms. They form a circle about 284 feet in diameter. Excavations have revealed cremated human bones in some of the chalk filling, but the holes themselves were probably made, not for the purpose of graves, but as part of the religious ceremony. Shortly after this stage Stonehenge was abandoned, left untouched for over 1000 years.
The second and most dramatic stage of Stonehenge started around 2150 BC. Some 82 bluestones from the Preseli mountains, in south-west Wales were transported to the site. It is thought these stones, some weighing 4 tons each were dragged on rollers and sledges to the headwaters on Milford Haven and then loaded onto rafts. They were carried by water along the south coast of Wales and up the rivers Avon and Frome, before being dragged overland again to near Warminster in Wiltshire. The final stage of the journey was mainly by water, down the river Wylye to Salisbury, then the Salisbury Avon to west Amesbury.
This astonishing journey covers nearly 240 miles. Once at the site, these stones were set up in the centre to form an incomplete double circle. ( During the same period the original entrance of the circular earthwork was widened and a pair of Heel Stones were erected. Also the nearer part of the Avenue was built, aligned with the midsummer sunrise.) The third stage of Stonehenge, about 2000 BC, saw the arrival of the Sarsen stones, which were almost certainly brought from the Marlborough Downs near Avebury, in north Wiltshire, about 25 miles north of Stonehenge. The largest of the Sarsen stones transported to Stonehenge weigh 50 tons and transportation by water would have been impossible, the stones could only have been moved using sledges and ropes. Modern calculations show that it would have taken 500 men using leather ropes to pull one stone, with an extra 100 men needed to lay the huge rollers in front of the sledge.
These were arranged in an outer circle with a continuous run of lintels. Inside the circle, five trilithons were placed in a horseshoe arrangement, whose remains we can still see today.
The final stage took place soon after 1500 BC when the bluestones were rearranged in the horseshoe and circle that we see today. The original number of stones in the bluestone circle was probably around 60, these have long since been removed or broken up. Some remain only as stumps below ground level.
Stonehenge circa BC

4. A towering circle of ancient stones, draped in the mist
of centuries. The clatter of
horses’ hooves, the clash of
swords and spears. A tiny island whose motley tongue
would become the language of the world, and whose
laws, customs, and literature would help form Western
civilization. This is England, and the story begins here.
McDougal Littell, p 18
Motley
To get started, read and discuss the opening paragraph on page 18. Ask students what names come to mind when they think of early
English history and literature. Students may mention such familiar names as Richard the Lion-Hearted and King Arthur, both of whom
are discussed in the essay.

5. The islands we know as Great Britain have been occupied by man since the Paleolithic Period [Old Stone Age]. We have archeological evidence dating back 40,000 years of nomadic peoples living in what is now England and Wales.
The earliest Celtic settlement thus far discovered by archaeologists is a site at Hallstatt in Austria.� As they spread to other parts of Europe they exhibited one major Celtic trait:� inter-tribal fighting--a trait that would ultimately prove to be disastrous in later wars with the Romans and then the Anglo-Saxons.� No one knows when the Celts first began settling in the British Isles, but they were documented there as far back as 333 B.C.� Celtic migration occurred over more than a century by two distinct groups of peoples:� the Goidels and the Brythons.
© Dane Degenhardt, Monde Dane, 2009.

6. Centuries of Invasion
The Dark Ages, as the Anglo-Saxon period is often called, was a time of bloody conflicts, ignorance, violence, and barbarism. Life was difficult, and the literature of the period reflects that reality. Little imagery of the brief English summers appears in this literature; winter prevails, and spring comes slowly, if at all. The people were serious minded, and the reader finds scarce humor in their literature. Indeed, many of the stories and poems present heroic struggles in which only the strong survive. And no wonder McDougal Littell, p 19
imagery
Prevails
The opening paragraph concludes with, “And no wonder.” What does the writer mean by this?
Possible answer: The writer is alluding to the preceding sentence, making the point that it’s “no wonder” that “only the strong survive,” because life in the Dark Ages was so difficult.

7. Chief among the earliest actual cultures was a group of loosely related tribes called Celts which inhabited most
of central Europe. It is not known when the Celts entered Great Britain; but according to Julius Caesar, it was likely before 200 BC.
The Celtic tribe which entered Great Britain was called the Brythons [which became Britons from which we get the term Britain]. The Celts were great story-tellers, great drinkers and great fighters - with a liking for single combat, after which the victor proudly displays the severed head of his opponent. Their religion was polytheistic [from the Greek roots polys-many; theos-god].
The Celts in Europe began to trouble their very different neighbors, the sober and disciplined Romans during the first century B.C.
About 1,000 years BC a collection of people emerged in central Europe who were known as the Celts.� The word Celt comes from the Greek word, Keltoi, which means barbarians and is properly pronounced as "Kelt"
The Celts knew how to breed and manage horses, skills learned from their Asiatic forebears and they understood iron technology and were to develop it extensively.
=831&HistoryID=aa84&gtrack=pthc#ixzz0ukMiW6rF

8. the Picts and Gaels, in peace.
The first person ever to write about England may have been the Roman general Julius Caesar, who in 55 B.C attempted to conquer the British Isles. Put off by fierce Celtic warriors, Caesar hastily claimed victory for Rome and returned to Europe, leaving the Britons (as the people were known) and their neighbors to the north and west,
the Picts and Gaels, in peace.
McDougal Littell, p 19
Fosse Way- Built in 47 AD by the Emperor Claudius , it is the only road remaining from the initial Roman invasion.
geograph.org.uk

9. A century later, however, the Roman army returned in force and made good Caesar’s claim. Britain became a province of the great Roman Empire, and the Romans introduced cities, roads, written scholarship, and eventually Christianity to the island. Their rule lasted more than three hundred years.
“Romanized” Britons adapted to an urban lifestyle, living in villas and frequenting public baths, and came to depend on the Roman military for protection. Then, early in the fifth century,
the Romans pulled out of Britain, called home to help defend their beleaguered empire against hordes of invaders.
With no central government or army,
it was not long before Britain, too, became a target for invasion.
McDougal Littell, p 19

10. Summary of the Roman Occupation
Julius Caesar began the invasion/occupation of Britain in 55 B.C. His visits planted the seeds for trade and diplomacy that made possible the later occupation by Claudius. Tacitus, Agricola 13
The occupation was completed by the Emperor Claudius from 43 to 50 A.D.
The Romans left in 410 A.D. because the Visigoths attacked Rome and the fall of the empire began. By 476 there was no longer a western Roman Empire.
St. Augustine landed in Kent in 597 and converted King Aethelbert (king of Kent, the oldest Saxon settlement) to Christianity; he became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

11. Hadrian’s Wall built about 122 A.D.
Roman architecture found in England today.
Hadrian’s Wall built about 122 A.D.
Roman baths at Bath, England
Everything above the first level of baths is a much later reconstruction and addition. The baths were active between 70 and 360 AD
The 70 miles long great wall was built by the Roman Emperor Hadrian He observed the poor defensive conditions of England and ordered this great wall to be built up. This great wall was constructed with the help of 27 million cubic tones of stone and served the Romans for more than 300 years till their reign ended over England.

12. Cultural and Historical Results of the Roman Occupation in Britain
Military
Celts were pushed into Wales and Ireland.
Romans prevented Vikings from raiding for several hundred years: C. Warren Hollister writes, “Rome’s greatest gift to Britain was peace” (15).
Infrastructure
The Romans built a strong government (fell apart when the Romans left).
Architectural structures were built: Roads, walls, cities, villas, public baths (some remains still exist)
Language and Writing
Latin became the official language
The practice of recording history led to the earliest English “literature” being documentary [Venerable Bede : Ecclesiastical History of the English People].
Religion
Christianity began to take hold, especially after St. Augustine converted King Aethelbert
In what ways did the Roman conquest of Britain benefit Britons?
Possible answer: The Romans introduced cities, roads, and written scholarship to the Britons. In addition, the Roman army provided military
protection.

13. The Most Important Results of the Roman Occupation
Latin heavily influenced the English language.
Relative peace prevailed.
Christianity began to take hold in England (but did not fully displace Paganism for several hundred years).

14. The Anglo-Saxon Period 410-787
Angles-Anglii
Jutes-Jutland
Saxons-Southern Jutland

15. The Angles and Saxons, along with other Germanic tribes, began arriving from northern Europe around 449 AD. The Britons—perhaps led by a Celtic chieftain named Arthur (likely the genesis of the legendary King Arthur of myth and folklore)—fought a series of battles against the invaders. Eventually, however, the Britons were driven to The west (Cornwall and Wales), the north (Scotland), and across the English Channel to an area of France that became known as Brittany.
for less–proficient readers
Vocabulary Support The “Germanic tribes,”
which included the Angles and Saxons, were peoples joined through shared language and custom, who took control of parts of Europe in the fifth century A.D. Millions of people in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world still speak Germanic languages today.
McDougal Littell, p 19

16. Settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the main part of
McDougal Littell, p 19
Settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the main part of
Britain took on a new name: Angle-land, or
England. Anglo-Saxon culture became the basis
For English culture, and their gutteral, vigorous
language became the spoken language of the
people, the language now known as Old English.

17. Important Events in the Anglo-Saxon Period
From , Angles and Saxons invaded from Baltic shores of Germany, and the Jutes invaded from the Jutland peninsula in Denmark.
[The Geats, a tribe from Jutland, appear in the epic Beowulf.]
Nine Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms eventually became the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy (England was not unified), or “Seven Sovereign Kingdoms.”

18. Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy [hept=7 arch=government, rule]
Heptarchy = Seven Kingdoms
[England-to-be]
Kent
Essex (East Saxon)
Sussex (South Saxon)
East Anglia
Northumbria
Mercia
Wessex (West Saxon)
Scotland-to-be 5 6 4
In what ways does the influence of the Anglo-Saxons persist to this day?
Possible answer: The Anglo-Saxon language, Old English, is the basis of numerous words in modern-day English.
Wales-to-be 2 1 7 3
Do you recognize any of these names?

19. Viking Invasions
home.online.no/~joeolavl/viking/osebergskipet.htm

20. The 790s brought the next wave of invaders, a fearsome group of seafaring marauders from the rocky, windswept coasts of Denmark and Norway: the Vikings. Shrieking wildly and waving giant battle-axes, Viking raiders looted, killed, and burned down entire villages. At first, they hit and ran; later, finding England a more pleasant spot to spend the winter than their icy homeland, the Danish invaders set up camps and gradually gained control of much of the north and east of the country.
McDougall-Littell, p 20

21. The first Viking raids in the British Isles were in 793
The first Viking raids in the British Isles were in For the next years, the Vikings engaged in hit-and-run raids where they landed a small number of ships at a settlement, spent a few days pillaging and burning it before heading back to Scandanavia to sell their booty. The Vikings were after two types of booty - riches and slaves - which they carried off to sell. They soon found that the monasteries were the richest sources of both goods and this is why monasteries suffered so much. However, the Vikings also attacked a lot of grád Fhéne (commoner's) dwellings.
getasword.com/.../

22. However, the Vikings were soon to improve their methods of pillaging
However, the Vikings were soon to improve their methods of pillaging. Instead of landing 3 or 4 boats, raiding nearby settlements and going back to Scandanavia, they decided to scale-up. They brought between 50 and 100 boats of Viking warriors, landed, and set up a camp. From this base they then raided extensively into the surrounding countryside for a period of several months. They pillaged monasteries, churches, the fortresses, and farms.
Picture by Ray Pritchard PicturesOfEngland.com

23. In the south, the Danes finally met defeat at the
hands of a powerfulAnglo-Saxon king known as
Alfred the Great.
Alfred unified the English, and under his rule,
learning and culture flourished.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of
English history, was initiated at his bidding.
McDougall-Littell, p 20

24. A sidebar about the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is one of the most important documents that has come down to us from the middle ages. It was originally compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately A.D. 890, and subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 12th Century. The original language was Anglo-Saxon (Old English), but later entries were probably made in an early form of Middle English.

25. We like to think of this document as the ultimate timeline of British history from its beginnings up to the end of the reign of King Stephen in The Chronicle certainly does not present us with a complete history of those times and is probably not 100% accurate, either, but that doesn't diminish its enormous value in helping us to arrive at a clearer picture of what actually happened in Britain over a thousand years ago.
The entire Chronicle runs to almost 100,000 words. Seven of the nine surviving manuscripts and fragments now reside in the British Library. The remaining two are in the at Oxford and Cambridge universities.

26. Important Results of the Anglo-Saxon and Viking Invasions
Politically and Culturally
Continued political instability and conflict (i.e., tribal war): there was no central government or church
The Anglo-Saxon code (more on this when we read Beowulf)
Linguistically
The English language is “born” during the first millennium and is known as Old English (OE). Anglo-Saxon is the term for the culture.
Old English is mainly Germanic  the core of our modern English is vastly influenced by this early linguistic “DNA”
MANY dialects of Old-English, as one might imagine. This is because there were five or six different cultures: Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes, Danes, and Swedes
*Alfred the Great (ruled from approx A.D.) was one of the first Anglo-Saxon kings to push Vikings back; in fact, he was one of the first kings to begin consolidating power, unifying several of the separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

27. Huh? (we better boil those important results down!)
Lots of ongoing tribal feuds and wars led to . . .
Lots of intermingling of similar but different Germanic languages interrupted by . . .
MORE Viking invasions, which gave way to . . .
Some political unification (Alfred) . . .
. . . Which led to . . .
OLD ENGLISH, the earliest form of our language!!

28. The Norman Conquest 1066
In 1042, a descendant of Alfred’s took the throne, the deeply religious Edward the Confessor. Edward, who had no children, had once sworn an oath making his French cousin William, duke of Normandy, his heir—or so William claimed. When Edward died, however, a council of nobles and church officials chose an English earl named Harold to succeed him. Incensed, William led his Norman army in what was to be the last successful invasion of the island of Britain: the Norman Conquest.
What caused William to invade England?
Possible answer: William had expected to be heir to the throne after Edward.
However, the English council chose Harold instead, which infuriated William.
McDougal Littell, p 20

29. Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings in 1066,
and on Christmas Day of that year, William the Conqueror
was crowned King of England.
The Norman Conquest
ended Anglo-Saxon
dominance in England.
Losing their land to the
Conquerors, noble Scale model of the Battle of Hastings
families sank into the peasantry, and a new class of
privileged Normans took their place.
McDougal Littell, p 20
What were the effects of theNorman Conquest?
Possible answer: The Norman Conquest put an end to Anglo-Saxon dominance in England, relegated English
noble families to peasantry, and created a new class of privileged Normans.

30. A Voice from the Times William returned to Hastings,
and waited there to know
whether the people would submit
to him. But when he found that
they would not come to him, he
went up with all his force that
was left and that came since to
him from over sea, and ravaged
all the country
—Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Edward the Confessor in his coffin
Bayeux Tapestry
Harold receives arrow in his eye at the Battle of Hastings and dies.
Bayeux Tapestry

31. A Sidebar on the Bayeux Tapestry
The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidery, 1.6 by 230 ft, made in the 11th century. The origin of the tapestry is unknown. The earliest known written reference to it is a 1476 inventory of Bayeaux Cathedral.. It is on display today in Bayeaux, Normandy, France.
Celebrating the conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, this linen canvas was probably created after the Battle of Hastings on October 14th, 1066 in the south of England by Anglo-Saxon embroiderers as their work was well-known throughout Europe.
Legendary animals, ships, Vikings, Norman and Saxon cavalries illustrate the exploits of William and his opponent Harold, another pretender to the throne of England.

32. Section depicting Halley’s Comet.
The tapestry: 18 inches high and 230 feet long
Death of King Harold
Normans sailing to Hastings

33. Early England Created by Three Invasions
2. Anglo-Saxon and Viking Invasions 410 – 1066 A.D.
1. Roman Occupation 55 B.C.-410 A.D.
GERMAN(IC)
3. The Norman Invasion (The Battle of Hastings) in 1066 A.D.
LATIN (Roman)
FRENCH

34. Results of the Norman Conquest
Two Most Important Effects:
French becomes official language of politics and power and exerts enormous influence on Old English
England begins unifying under a French political system, much of which is still with us (even in the U.S.) today

35. The Spread of Christianity
Like all cultures, that of the Anglo-Saxons changed over time. The early invaders were seafaring wanderers whose lives were bleak, violent, and short. Their pagan religion was marked by a strong belief in wyrd, or fate, and they saved their admiration for heroic warriors whose fate it was to prevail in battle. As the Anglo-Saxons settled into their new land, however, they became an agricultural people— less violent, more secure, more civilized.

36. offered little hope. Life was harsh, it taught, and the
The bleak fatalism of the Anglo-Saxons’ early beliefs may have reflected the reality of their lives, but it
offered little hope. Life was harsh, it taught, and the
only certainty was that it would end in death. Christianity opened up a bright new possibility: that the suffering of this world was merely a prelude to the eternal happiness of heaven.
Early Anglo-Saxon literature reflected a fatalistic worldview, while later works were influenced by rapidly spreading Christianity.
Why would Christianity appeal to the early Anglo-Saxons?
Possible answer:
The Anglo-Saxons’ pagan religion was bleakly fatalistic, offering people little hope for better lives. By contrast, Christianity raised the possibility that people would leave their harsh world and go on to heaven’s eternal
happiness.

37. Christianity takes hold
No one knows exactly when the first Christian missionaries arrived in Britain, but by a.d. 300 the number of Christians on the island was significant. Over the next two centuries, Christianity spread to Ireland and Scotland, and from Scotland to the Picts and Angles in the north. In 597, a Roman missionary named Augustine arrived in the kingdom of Kent, where he established a monastery at Canterbury.
From there, Christianity spread so rapidly that by 690 all of Britain was at least nominally Christian, though
many held on to some pagan traditions and beliefs.
McDougall Littell p. 21

38. Monasteries became centers of intellectual, literary, artistic, and social activity. At a time when schools and libraries were completely unknown, monasteries offered the only opportunity for education. Monastic scholars imported books from the Continent, which were then painstakingly copied. In addition, original works were written, mostly in scholarly Latin, but later in Old English. The earliest recorded history of the English people came from the clergy at the monasteries.
McDougall Littell p. 21
What important role did monasteriesplay?
Possible answer: Monasteries were focal points of intellectual, literary, artistic, and social activity. Since there were
no schools or libraries, monasteries provided the only educational opportunities.

39. The greatest of these monks was the Venerable Bede (c
The greatest of these monks was the Venerable Bede (c. 673–735), author of A History of the English Church and People.
When Vikings invaded in the late eighth and ninth centuries, they plundered monasteries and threatened to obliterate all traces of cultural refinement. Yet Christianity continued as a dominant cultural force for more than a thousand years to come.
McDougall Littell p. 21

40. A Sidebar on the Venerable Bede
The Venerable Bede ( ), regarded as the father of English history, lived and worked in a monastery in northern Britain during the late seventh and early eighth centuries. His most famous work, A History of the English Church and People, is a major source of information about life in Britain from the first successful Roman invasion (about a.d. 46) to a.d The book contains many stories about the spread of Christianity among the English.
McDougall Littell, p. 92

41. First page of Bede’s History, this written in 800
The name probably derives from the Old English bēd, or prayer, and if it was the name given Bede at birth, probably meant that his family had planned on his entering the clergy from birth.
christianity/people/bede.htm
First page of Bede’s History, this written in 800

42. Raised By Monks
At the age of seven, Bede was taken by his parents to a monastery at Wearmouth, on the northeast coast of Britain, where he was left in the care of the abbot, Benedict Biscop. It is not known why the boy’s parents left him or whether he ever saw them again. When he was nine, Bede moved a short distance to a new monastery at Jarrow, where he spent the rest of his life.
Picture by Ray Pritchard PicturesOfEngland.com
McDougall Littell, p. 92

43. Multitalented Scholar
Bede was a brilliant
scholar and a gifted writer and teacher. He
was also a careful and thorough historian.
He sought out original documents and
reliable eyewitness accounts on which
to base his writing. Working in a chilly,
damp, poorly lit cell in the monastery,
Bede managed to write about 40 books,
including works on spelling, grammar,
science, history, and religion.
McDougall Littell p. 21

44. a naturally devout and studious child. He
A Bookish Boy
Bede seems to have been
a naturally devout and studious child. He
read widely in the monastery libraries and
participated fully in the religious life of the
monastery. He was exposed to the art and
learning of Europe through the paintings,
books, and religious objects brought from
Rome by Abbot Biscop. Bede became a
deacon of the church at the age of 19—six
years earlier than was usual—and was
ordained to the priesthood when he was 30.
McDougall Littell p. 21

45. Still Venerable Today Bede’s reputation
as a scholar and a devout monk spread
throughout Europe during his lifetime
and in the centuries following. (The
honorific title “Venerable” was probably
first applied to him during the century
after his death, as an acknowledgment of
his achievements.) Although Bede was
influenced by the outlook of his time—as
is evident in the miracle stories he included
in his History—his carefulness and
integrity are still respected and valued by
scholars today, almost 1,300 years later.
The tomb of the Venerable Bede
McDougall Littell p. 21

46. Interesting facts:
Bede is the only Englishman that Dante names in the Paradiso.
From Bede’s era came the idea of dating everything from the birth of Christ (AD). Thus, the letters BC (before Christ) may have been started by him.
Bede was the first person to use footnotes---thus they are his invention.
It is believed that the library at his monastery had between books, making it one of the largest in England and a center
for education and culture.
The word Venerable was first attached to his name in the 9th century. It means that his holiness is recognized by the church.
a title bestowed on a deceased person when the first stage of his canonization has been accomplished and his holiness has been recognized in a decree of the official Church

47. The Epic Tradition Anglo-Saxon literature often focused on great
Heroes such as Beowulf, though sometimes it addressed everyday concerns.
The early literature of the Anglo-Saxon period mostly took the form of lengthy epic poems praising the deeds of heroic warriors. These poems
reflected the reality of life at this time, which was often brutal. However, the context in which these poems were delivered was certainly not grim.
McDougall Littell p. 21

48. on special occasions to celebrate in style
on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roasted
meats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire,
And poems to life.
on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roasted
meats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire,
and listened to scops—professional poets—bring the epic poems to life.
In poets—bring the epic poems to life.
In the great mead halls of kings and nobles, Anglo-Saxons would gather on special occasions to celebrate in style. They feasted on pies and roasted meats heaped high on platters, warmed themselves before a roaring fire, and listened to scops—professional poets—bring the epic poems to life.
heorot.dk
McDougall Littell p. 21

49. Strumming a harp, the scop would chant in a clear voice that carried over the shouts and laughter of the crowd, captivating them for hours on end with tales of courage, high drama, and tragedy. McDougall Littell p. 21
adventuresindailyliving.blogspot.com
matherart.com

50. To the Anglo-Saxons, these epic poems were far more than simple entertainment. The scop’s performance was a history lesson, moral sermon, and pep talk rolled into one, instilling cultural pride and teaching how a true hero should behave. At the same time, in true Anglo-Saxon fashion, the scop reminded his listeners that they were helpless in the hands
regia.org
of fate and that all human ambition would end in death. With no hope for an afterlife, only an epic poem could provide a measure of immortality McDougall Littell p.

51. In this age before printing presses, however,
These epic poems were an oral art form: memorized and performed, not written down. Later, as Christianity spread through Britain, literacy spread too, and poems were more likely to be recorded.
In this age before printing presses, however,
manuscripts had to be written out by hand, copied slowly and laboriously by scribes.
McDougall Littell p.
illuminatedleaves.com

52. Thus, only a fraction of Anglo-Saxon poetry has survived, in manuscripts produced centuries after the poems were originally composed. The most famous survivor is the epic Beowulf, about a legendary hero of the northern European past. In more than 3,000 lines, Beowulf relates the tale of a heroic warrior who battles monsters and dragons to protect the people. Yet Beowulf, while performing superhuman deeds, is not immortal. His death comes from wounds incurred in his final, great fight.
McDougall Littell p.

53. Reflections of Common Life
While epics such as Beowulf gave Anglo-Saxons a taste of glory, scops also sang shorter, lyric poems, such as “The Seafarer,” that reflected a more everyday reality: the wretchedness of a cold, wet sailor clinging to his storm-tossed boat; the misery and resentment of his wife, left alone for months or years, not knowing if her husband would ever return.
languageisavirus.com
McDougall Littell p.

54. Some of these poems mourn loss and death in the mood of grim fatalism typical of early Anglo-Saxon times; others, written after the advent of Christianity, express religious faith or offer moral instruction. A manuscript known as the Exeter Book, produced by a single scribe around a.d. 950, contains many of the surviving Anglo-Saxon lyrics, including nearly 100 riddles, religious verse, and a heroic narrative. It is the largest collection of Old English poetry in existence.
consists of 131 leaves of
parchment, each slightly
bigger than a standard
sheet of paper .
McDougall Littell p98.

55. Early Authors
Most Old English poems are anonymous. One of the few poets known by name was a monk called Caedmon, described by the Venerable Bede in his famous history of England. Like most scholars of his day, Bede wrote in Latin, the language of the church. It was not until the reign of Alfred the Great that writing in English began to be widespread; in addition to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was written in the language of the people, Alfred encouraged English translations of the Bible and other Latin works.
McDougall Littell p98

56. As England moved into the Middle Ages, its literature continued to capture the rhythms of everyday life. The medieval period was one of social turbulence and unrest, and several works give modern readers a glimpse of the individual hopes and fears of people of the time. Margery Kempe, for example, describes a crisis of faith brought on by childbirth; the letters of Margaret Paston and her family mainly deal with issues of marriage and managing the family estate. McDougall Littell p98

59. A Short History of Our Language
“How English got to be so hard to study, but is still so beautiful to hear and read”

60. Quick History of English Language
Old English (OE) dates from approximately* 400 A.D. to 1066
Middle English (ME) dates from approximately
They are quite different to the eye and ear. Old English is nearly impossible to read or understand without studying it much like and English speaker today would study French, Latin, or Chinese
*The dating of the beginnings of OE is difficult; scholars only have written texts in OE beginning in around 700 A.D., but peoples in England must have been speaking a version of OE prior to works being written in the vernacular (as opposed to Latin)

61. Just as Britain’s fifth-century invaders
eventually united into a nation called
England, their closely related Germanic
dialects evolved over time into a
distinct language called English—
today called Old English to distinguish
it from later forms of the language.
McDougall Littell p98

62. A Different Language: Old English was very different from the language we know today. Though about half of our basic vocabulary comes from the Anglo-Saxon language, a modern English speaker would find the harsh sounds impossible to understand. Some words can still be recognized in writing, though the spelling is a little unfamiliar: for instance, sc¯oh (shoe), hunig (honey), milc (milk), and faeder (father). Other words have disappeared entirely, such as hatheart (angry) and gleowian (joke).

63. Another Way of Looking at the History of English
Old English
Beowulf
(from Beowulf!)
“Gaæþ a wyrd swa hio scel” (OE) =
“Fate goes ever as it must” (MnE)
Middle English
Chaucer
(from CT)
“Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote ” (ME) =
“When that April with its sweet showers . . .” (MnE)
Early Modern English
Shakespeare
(from KL)
“Sir, I loue you more than words can weild ye matter” (EMnE) =
“Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter” (MnE)
Modern English
1800-present
Austen
(from P&P)
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
OE=Old English ME=Middle English EMnE=Early Modern English MnE=Modern English

64. Old English
A page from the manuscript of Beowulf, reproduced from William J. Long, English Literature: Its History and Its Significance for the Life of the English Speaking World (Boston: Ginn and Co, 1919; repr. as The Project Gutenberg EBook of English Literature, by William J. Long (Project Gutenburg, 2004),

65. Whan that Apryll with his shoures soote its showers sweet
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote, drafts
And bathed every veyne in swich licour vine (root) such liquid
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth West Wind also
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth gover and field
The tender croppes, and the yonge sonne young sun (Spring sun)
Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne, Ram (Aries) his course has run
And smale foweles maken melodye, small fowls (little birds)
That slepen al the nyght with open ye sleep open eye
(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages), pricks (spurs) spirits
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, Then
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes, palmers (pilgrims) strange shores
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; famous halls? foreign shrines? known in
(distant) lands
And specially from every shires ende shire (country)
Of Engeland to Cauterbury they wende, wend (go)
The hooly blisful martir for to seke, martir (martyr) seke (seek
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke. Holpen (helped) seeke (sick)
Middle English

66. Grammatically, the language was more complex than modern English, with words changing form to indicate different functions, so that word order was more flexible than it is now.
McDougall Littell p98

67. The Growth of English
The most valuable characteristic of Old English, however, was its ability to change and grow, to adopt new words as the need arose. While Christianity brought Latin words such as cloister, priest, and candle into the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, encounters with the Vikings brought skull, die, crawl, and rotten. The arrival of the Normans in 1066 would stretch the language even farther, with thousands of words from the French. McDougall Littell p98

68. English = ? Celtic (from 1700 or 400 B.C. to 55 B.C.) +
Latin (from 55 B. C. to 410 A. D.) +
German (from 410 A.D. to 1066 A.D.) +
French (from 1066 A.D. to 1485 A.D.) =
OLD ENGLISH and MIDDLE ENGLISH
VERY DIFFICULT LANGUAGE, BUT ONE PERFECT FOR LIMITLESS AND BEAUTIFUL EXPRESSION

69. Transition to Beowulf
We study English history to understand the context of the epic, Beowulf; and we study Beowulf to understand the world which was Old England.
It is the story of a Scandinavian (Geat) “thane” (warrior or knight) who comes to help a neighboring tribe, the Danes, that is being attacked by a monster.
According to Venerable Bede, the Britons called the Romans for help when the Picts and Scots were attacking them (B.C.). Hundreds of years later, the Britons called the Saxons to help them when the Romans couldn’t. The Saxons came “from parts beyond the sea” (qtd. in Pyles and Algeo 96).
This journey of Germanic peoples to England “from parts beyond the sea” is the prototypical story for the first millennium of England’s history. It formulates much of their cultural mindset and clearly influences their stories. Be sure to consider how it plays a role in Beowulf.

70. Bibliography
Abrams, M. H., and Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. Introduction. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, seventh ed., vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, ,
Anderson, Robert, et al. Eds. Elements of Literature, Sixth Course, Literature of Britain. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Burrow, J. A. “Old and Middle English Literature, c ” The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature. Ed. Pat Rogers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1987.
Grant, Neil. Kings and Queens. Glasgow: Harper Collins, 1999.
Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England, 55 B.C. to th ed. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1988
McDougall Littell, Literature. Houghton Miflin
Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 4th Ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1993.