2. Copyright, 1998-2013 © Qiming Zhou GEOG1150. Cartography Perception and Design

3. 2  Cartographic design  Colour theory and models  Patterns  Typography and lettering the map

4. Perception and Design3 Cartographic design  Design is creation.  Objectives of map design. General reference map. Thematic map.  Functional design. There are almost unlimited options for organising the visual character of the display. Most design choices are compromises.

5. Perception and Design4 Design process  Draw heavily on imagination and creativity - graphic ideation  Develop a specific graphic plan by analysing various alternatives and weigh them within the limits of the general plan  Prepare detailed specifications for map construction  Design prototypes

6. Perception and Design5 Perceptual considerations  Graphic elements Point marks - position Line marks - direction and position: a linear array of points Area marks - extent, direction and position: a 2-dimensional array of points

7. Perception and Design6 Perceptual and cognitive limitations  Symbol differences in a display must be perceptible to be of use.  This is determined by two variables, namely just noticeable difference (JND) and least practical difference (LPD).  JND is the smallest difference that can be reliably perceived between symbols, sizes, colours, shapes, etc.  LPD is the smallest difference that can be produced by the cartographic process.

8. Perception and Design7 Perceptual and cognitive limitations (cont.)  In manual process of map-making, LPD limits the use of symbols.  JND becomes more critical in computer- generated map products.  JND is largely determined by human eye’s sensitivity to various graphical objects. Some graphical codes “get through” human eyes better than the other.  Graphical perception is dependent upon cognition - the knowledge or understanding of phenomena.

9. Perception and Design8 Visual variables  Primary visual variables Shape Size Orientation Hue (colour) Value (colour) chroma (colour)  Secondary visual variables Arrangement (pattern) Texture (pattern) Orientation (pattern)

10. Perception and Design9 Primary visual variables The primary visual variables with some examples of their simple application to the classes of symbols. From Robinson, et al., 1995

11. Perception and Design10 Secondary visual variables The secondary visual variables with some examples of their simple application to the basic graphic elements. From Robinson, et al., 1995

12. Perception and Design11 Classes of symbols  Point-emphasising symbols  Line-emphasising symbols  Area-emphasising symbols  Volume-emphasising symbols

13. Perception and Design12 Classes of symbols (cont.) Some examples of the four classes of symbols (point-, line-, area-, and volume- emphasising) and how they might be used for a few of the kinds of qualitative and quantitative data. From Robinson, et al., 1995

14. Perception and Design13 Examples of thematic maps  A map is a two-dimensional scale model of a part of the surface of the earth.  Common thematic maps. Choropleth maps show relative magnitudes of continuous variables as they occur within the boundaries of unit areas. Contour/Isarithmic maps represent quantities by lines of equal value and emphasise gradients among the values.

15. Perception and Design14 Choropleth maps

16. Perception and Design15 Contour/isarithmic maps

17. Perception and Design16 Other kinds of maps  Dot maps (e.g. Population)  Symbol maps (e.g. Labour force)  Line maps (e.g. Transport)  3-dimensional maps (e.g. Landform)  Animation maps (e.g. Weather)

18. Perception and Design17 Dot maps

19. Perception and Design18 Symbol maps

20. Perception and Design19 Line maps

21. Perception and Design20 Animation maps

22. Perception and Design21 Animation maps (cont.)

23. Perception and Design22 Other graphics output  Bar chart  Pie chart  Scatter plot  Histogram Bar chartPie chart Scatter plotHistogram

24. Perception and Design23 Design principles  Legibility - graphic symbols must be easy to read and understand e.g. Size  Visual contrast  Figure-ground organisation Differentiation, closed forms, familiarity, lightness, good contour, detail, and size  Hierarchical organisation - visual layering stereogrammic, extensional and subdivisional

25. Perception and Design24 Legibility Viewing distance (m) Size (width, mm) 0.50.3 21.15 52.9 105.8 158.7 2011.6 2514.5 3017.4 Approximate minimum sizes for legibility of point symbols. After Robinson, et al., 1995

26. Perception and Design25 Visual contrast Size contrast of lines. Uniformity produces unpleasant monotony. The areas that are most “interesting” are those with with considerable contrast. After Robinson, et al., 1995

27. Perception and Design26 Figure-ground organisation Four simple sketch maps to illustrate various aspects of the figure-ground relationship. From Robinson, et al., 1995

28. Perception and Design27 Hierarchical organisation An example of stereogrammic hierarchical graphic organisation: (A): all elements lie in the same visual plane; (B): the land seems to be above the water, and mordern boundaries rise above the visual plane of the land. From Robinson, et al., 1995

29. Perception and Design28 Stereogrammic organisation Some examples of depth cues that may be useful in stereogrammic organisation. (A), (B), (C) and (D) illustrate various kinds of superimposition. (E) illustrates a progression of size, and (F) illustrates a progression of value. (G) depth cues may be used additively. From Robinson, et al., 1995

30. Perception and Design29 Extensional organisation An example of extensional hierarchical graphic organisation in which a set of roads is graded according to relative importance. From Robinson, et al., 1995

31. Perception and Design30 Sub-divisional organisation An example of sub- divisional hierarchical organisation in which the primary division is between humid and dry climates, with a secondary sub- division based on temperature, and a tertiary sub- division based on desert versus steppe. From Robinson, et al., 1995

32. Perception and Design31 Design planning  The graphic outline  Composition  Visual balance  Contextual items Titles Legends Insets

33. Perception and Design32 The graphic outline The fundamental organisational elements: 1.The place – Europe. 2.The features – the two distributions. 3.The position of the features with respect to Europe. 4.The relative position of the two distributions. (A): 1-2-3-4, (B): 2-3-4-1, (C): 3-1-4-2, (D): 4-2-3-1. From Robinson, et al., 1995

34. Perception and Design33 Composition Explanatory aids such as titles, legends, scales, insets and direction indicators are also standard components of map composition. They may be arranged in various ways in the graphic organisation of a map. From Robinson, et al., 1995

35. Perception and Design34 Visual balance Actual centre Visual centre Left: The visual as opposed to the actual centre of a rectangle. Balancing is accomplished around the visual centre. Right: Visual balance. (A), (B), (C) and (D) show different degrees of balance. (A) and (B) are analogous to a child and an adult on a seesaw. (C) and (D) introduce relative density or visual weight, darker masses being heavier. From Robinson, et al., 1995

36. Perception and Design35 Sketches of a map Preliminary sketches of a map made in order to arrive at a desirable layout and balance. From Robinson, et al., 1995

37. Perception and Design36 Contextual items Examples of variations in the prominence of map legends. Note the operation of the principles of figure-ground relationships. From Robinson, et al., 1995

38. Perception and Design37 Colour  “Light”, or different colours, is a narrow frequency band within the electromagnetic spectrum.  Visible colours are electromagnetic wave with the wavelength of approximately 700nm (red) to 400nm (violet).

39. Perception and Design38 Electromagnetic spectrum 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 110 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 910 10 11 millimetrecentimetremetre INVISIBLE 400500600700 Gamma and X-raysInfraredRadio – Microwave - Television nm VISIBLE LIGHT InfraredUV

40. Perception and Design39 Colour theory and models  Using colour on maps is one of the most interesting and challenging aspects of cartography.  Colour is a perceptual phenomenon, a product of our mental processing of electromagnetic radiation detected by our eyes.  A colour is measured by its hue, brightness (value) and saturation (chroma).

41. Perception and Design40 Components of a colour P( ) energy density Dominant wavelength (hue) Wavelength (nm) 400 Violet 700 Red e1e1 e2e2 e 2 = e 1 : saturation = 0 e 2 > 0 and e 1  0: saturation  100% Area  brightness

42. Perception and Design41 The additive colour system

43. Perception and Design42 Blue = (0, 0, 1)Cyan = (0, 1, 1) Green = (0, 1, 0) Yellow = (1, 1, 0)Red = (1, 0, 0) Black = (0, 0, 0) Magenta = (1, 0, 1) White = (1, 1, 1) The RGB colour model

44. Perception and Design43 The subtractive colour system BGRG + R = Y -B BGRB + R = M -G BGRG -B -R

45. Perception and Design44 The Relation between RGB and CMY The CMY colour model C = 1 - R M = 1 - G Y = 1 - B

46. Perception and Design45 YIQ colour model  Used in US commercial colour television broadcasting.  The Y component of YIQ is not yellow but luminance, and is defined to be the same as the CIE Y primary.  The chromaticity is encoded in I and Q.  The RGB-to-YIQ mapping is defined as:

47. Perception and Design46 The HSI colour model  Colour (hue).  Purity (saturation).  Brightness (intensity).  The HSI coordinates are derived using the RGB colour cube with axes redefined according to the shade of colour, the purity of colour and the brightness of colour.

48. Perception and Design47 The HSI colour model (cont.)

49. Perception and Design48 HSV colour model HSV System - User-oriented system, being based on the intuitive appeal of the artist’s tint, shade and tone.

50. Perception and Design49 HLS colour model HLS System - is defined in the double-hexcone subset of a cylindrical space.

51. Perception and Design50 Patterns  Commonly used as a qualitative area symbol for depicting area features.  Also used to add graphic distinctiveness to uniformly coloured areas, especially on maps with a large number of classes.

52. Perception and Design51 Categories of patterns  Coarse line patterns  Dot patterns  Pictographic patterns  Reversed patterns

53. Perception and Design52 Categories of patterns An assortment of common line, dot, pictographic, and reversed patterns. From Robinson, et al., 1995

54. Perception and Design53 Use of patterns A simple monochrome map contrasting the use of parallel line and dot patterns. Line patterns are perceptually unstable, and all but the finest textures should be used with caution. From Robinson, et al., 1995

55. Perception and Design54 Typography and lettering the map  Elements of typographic design Type style (typeface) Type form (style) Type size - measured by points (1 point = 1/72”  0.35mm) Type colour  Lettering the map Positioning

56. Perception and Design55 History of map lettering A portion of one of the maps in Sir Robert Dudley’s atlas, Dellá Arcano del Mare (1646-1647). Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

57. Perception and Design56 Type style Times Roman Helvetica Courier Bookman Century Gothic Comic Sans Sans Serif NormalItalicBoldBold Italic Times Roman Helvetica Courier Bookman Century Gothic Comic Sans Sans Serif Times Roman Helvetica Courier Bookman Century Gothic Comic Sans Sans Serif Times Roman Helvetica Courier Bookman Century Gothic Comic Sans Sans Serif

58. Perception and Design57 Type form Arial Arial Italic Arial Black Italic Arial Bold Italic Arial Bold Arial Narrow Bold Arial Black Arial Narrow Arial Narrow Bold Italic Arial Narrow Italic

59. Perception and Design58 Lettering the map Comparison between inappropriately positioning type (left) and good design practice (right). From Robinson, et al., 1995