1. Theories of Retention and Student Success
Matthew D. Pistilli, Ph.D.
Director of Assessment & Planning, Division of Student Affairs
Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis
John N. Gardner
President
John N. Gardner Institute for Excellence in Undergraduate Education
January 14, 2015 · Costa Mesa, CA

2. Prominent Retention Theories
Astin
Tinto
Padilla
Bean and Eaton
Gardner

3. Astin’s Student Involvement Theory
Focuses on three aspects of college:
Inputs
Environment
Output
Developed as an alternative to other complex theories

4. Astin’s Student Involvement Theory (1984)
Inputs
Output
Environment
Astin’s Student Involvement Theory (1984)

5. Definitions Involvement:
The amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic experience. (1985, p. 134)
Exists on a continuum, with students investing varying levels of energy
Is both quantitative and qualitative
Direct relationship between student learning and student involvement
Effectiveness of policy or practice directly related to their capacity to increase student learning
Five basic postulataes about Involvement-
     1.  Investment of psychosocial and physical energy
     2.  Involvement is continuous, students invest varying levels of energy
     3.  Involvement has qualitative and quantitative features
     4.  Development directly proportional to quality and quantity of involvement
     5.  Educational effectiveness is related to level of student involvement
(Astin, 1985, 1999)

6. Inputs
The personal, background, and educational characteristics that students bring with them to postsecondary education that can influence educational outcomes (Astin, 1984).
Astin (1993) identified 146 characteristics, including
Demographics
High school academic achievement
Previous experiences & self-perceptions
Demographics
Citizenship
Ethnicity
Residency
Sex
Socioeconomic status
High school academic achievement
Standardized test scores
GPA
Grades in specific courses
Previous experiences & self-perceptions
Reasons for attending college
Expectations
Perceived ability

7. Output Basic level More abstractly Academic Achievement Retention
Graduation
More abstractly
Skills
Behaviors
Knowledge
The things we are attempting to develop in students

8. Environment Where we have the most control
Factors related to students’ experience while in college
Astin (1993) identified 192 variables across 8 overarching classifications
Institutional characteristics Financial Aid
Peer group characteristics Major Field Choice
Faculty characteristics Place of residence
Curriculum Student involvement
Institutional chars: Type, control, size
Peer group: SES, academic prep, values, attitudes
Faculty chars: teaching methods, morale, values
Curriculum: core courses, requirements for courses
Financial Aid: Pells, loans
Major field choice
Place of residence: on/off campus, Greek housing
Student involvement: hours spent studying, number of courses taken in various fields, participation in various programs

9. Takeaways from Astin We have little control over inputs
Outputs are usually measured in binary terms, but we have a greater opportunity beyond simply retaining/graduating students
We have a great deal of control over the environment into which we place our students
What aspects of the environment can you focus on as you develop plans to increase student success?

10. Tinto’s Model of Student Departure
Near-paradigmatic stature (Braxton, 1999)
Based on
Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide
van Gennep’s “successful rites of passage”
Looks at students’ pre-entry attributes, goals & commitments, and internal/external experiences
Tinto (1993) noted that “effective retention programs do not leave learning to chance,”
but, rather, are intentionally created environments that ensure that learning will occur (p.
147).
(Tinto, 1993)

11. Tinto’s Model (continued)
Considers both formal and informal interactions and experiences
Does not leave learning to chance – intentionally creates purposeful environments
Places strong emphasis on academic and social integration
(Tinto, 1993)

12. Tinto’s Model of Student Departure (1993)
First, students need to have access to retention programs that put their welfare above the institution’s goals. Second, retention programs should focus not just on a particular population (e.g., minority students, low-income students, athletes), but on students from all walks of life. Third, retention programming that can be deemed successful must work to provide a degree of integration for students into both the academic and social communities within an institution of higher education.
As Tinto put it, “the ability of an institution to retain students lies … in the underlying orientation toward students [that] directs its activities” (1993, p. 146). In other words, just as students must commit to an institution in Tinto’s model, an institution must also commit to the success of students.
Tinto’s Model of Student Departure (1993)

13. Takeaways from Tinto
Students’ goals and external commitments are real factors in their success and persistence
Students need to excel both academically and socially
Initiatives such as learning communities, academically-themed housing, and leadership programs can increase academic and social integration
Where are there opportunities to foster academic and social integration on your campus as part of your retention planning?

14. Padilla’s Conceptualization of Expertise
Developed a theory based on minority student success
In short, what separates students who successfully complete college from those who do not graduate?
Black Box Model
Geography of Barriers
Knowledge acquisition
Negotiating Barriers
Successful negotiation of Barriers
Developed after studying successful minority students at an institution in the Southwest
(Padilla, 1999)

15. Campus Experience
(Black Box)
Incoming Students
(Input)
Graduates
(Output)
Dropouts
(Padilla, 1999)

16. Campus Experience: Geography of Barriers
Incoming Students
(Input)
Graduates
(Output)
Dropouts
Campus Experience: Geography of Barriers
(Padilla, 1999)

17. Conceptualization of Expertise
Heuristic Knowledge Component
Rules of Thumb
Campus Dependent
Experiential Learning
Initial Knowledge
Total Knowledge at Graduation (compiled knowledge)
Classroom Learning
Campus Independent
Thus, student has compiled knowledge in two distinct components:
Theoretical
Learned through coursework and formal study
Heuristic
Based in prior experiences and study, yet untested in a campus context
Students use both theoretical and heuristic knowledge to navigate barriers encountered on campus
If a student has insufficient theoretical or heuristic knowledge to overcome a barrier
Students must acquire that knowledge on the spot in time to overcome the barrier
If they aren’t able to overcome the barrier
Students may be predisposed to leaving college
If a sufficient (undefined) number/type of barriers are not overcome
Students will likely dropout of college
Success, then, is predicated on
The salience of each barrier encountered and their ability to overcome a particular configuration of barriers
Important to note:
Students are considered experts on being students and on campus barriers
Laws, Axioms & Principles
The gray curve is a potential distribution in the acquisition of theoretical and heuristic knowledge over time.
Theoretical Knowledge Component
(Padilla, 1999)

18. Takeaways from Padilla
Our campuses are full of barriers for students – usually in the form of policies, regulations, and practices.
Students are experts in their own success – and their peers’ failure
Heuristic and/or theoretical knowledge must be tapped by students to overcome barriers
What barriers exist on your campus that can be removed to facilitate processes students must navigate or to allow for progress towards degree objectives?

19. Bean and Eaton’s Psychological Model of Student Retention
Based in four psychological theories
Attitude-behavior theory
Provides overall structure of model
Coping-behavioral theory
Self-efficacy theory
Attribution (locus of control) theory
These three things combine to form a model for understanding academic and social integration
(Bean & Eaton, 1999)

20. Bean and Eaton’s Psychological Model of Student Retention (1999)
Individual enters an institution with various psychological attributes
Attributes are shaped by experiences, abilities, self-assessments
Self-efficacy, normative beliefs, past behaviors among the most important
Interactions occur between student and the institution/representatives from various offices
These interactions alone do not result in integration
Students’ self-assessments during interactions with collegiate environments lead to a psychological determination of belongingness
Emotional reactions/feelings come into play here
Ultimately, students’ ability to become academically and socially integrated (and, thus, persist), come from students’:
Self-efficacy assessments (Bandura, 1997)
Coping behaviors (French, Rodgers & Cobb, 1974)
Loci of Control (Rotter, 1966; Weiner, 1986)
Bean and Eaton’s Psychological Model of Student Retention (1999)

21. Takeaways from Bean & Eaton
Students enter with characteristics over which we have little control (see Astin’s inputs)
Interactions occur between students and the institution in many forms and on multiple occasions – but these interactions do not automatically integrate students into the environment
Students determine the extent to which they belong during these interactions
How can your retention plan work to increase the extent to which students believe they belong on your campus?

22. Definition of First-Year Student Success
Academic Success/GPA
This broad definition of first-year student success is achievable only through partnerships.
Relationships
Identity Development
Career Decision Making
Health & Wellness
Faith & Spirituality
Multicultural Awareness
Civic Responsibility
Retention – the baseline

23. Broad discussion Commonalities Differences distinct enough to matter
Application
What are your takeaways from these theories?
What parts of these theories speak to your home institution?

24. References
Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 24, Astin, A. W. (1985). Involvement: The cornerstone of excellence. Change, 17, Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Liberal Education, 79(4), Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 40, Bean, J., & Eaton, S. B. (2001). The psychology underlying successful retention practices. Journal of College Student Retention, 3(1), Braxton, J. M. (1999). Theory elaboration and research and development: Toward a fuller understanding of college student retention. Journal of College Student Retention, 1, Padilla, R. V. (1999). College student retention: Focus on success. Journal of College Student Retention, 1, Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.