1. Planning Research: Generating a Question3
Planning Research: Generating a Question

2. FIGURE 3.1 Continuum Representing the Development of Research Ideas
Where Research Ideas Begin
FIGURE Continuum Representing the Development of Research Ideas

3. The Virtual Laboratory: Research on the Internet
Internet Research
Demographics—Who is likely to respond?
Lower income people have less internet access
Teens use social networking; adults do shopping online

4. The Virtual Laboratory: Research on the Internet
Respondent Motivation
In general, response rates for surveys are going down
Researchers have not found incentives that work
The abundance of internet research means a lot of competition

5. The Virtual Laboratory
Advantages of Web-Based Research
Less time commitment by the researcher
Scheduling appointments is not an issue
Data collection is automatic and accurate
Wider range of participants

6. The Virtual Laboratory
Potential Problems with Internet Research
No way to help confused participants
No control over quality of the data (This seems not to be a big problem relative to lab data)
We do not know the nature of our sample

7. The Virtual Laboratory
Potential Problems with Internet Research
Ethical considerations
Potential harm to participants
Age of participants
Debriefing
Quality of displays on varied mobile devices

8. Checking on Research: The Role of Replication
Reasons to Replicate Research
Establish validity of constructs and measurements
Spot possible errors
Type I—Achieving significance by accident
Type II—Failing to achieve significance when you should

9. Controversy: Does Music Make You Smarter—The Role of Replication
Rauscher et al. (1993, 1995) reported that listening to Mozart improved test scores
Subsequent researchers could not replicate the surprising findings
Higher motivation and positive mood seems to be the cause, not the music
Replication was important in debunking the so-called “Mozart Effect”

10. Don’t Reinvent the Wheel: Reviewing the Literature
What is a Literature Review?
Finding out what others have already published
Discovering useful methods you can use
Identifying measurements that you can make

11. Don’t Reinvent the Wheel: Reviewing the Literature
What is a Literature Review?
Finding suggestions for future research
Avoiding problems that others have solved

12. How to Conduct a Literature Review
Electronic Databases
EBSCO
Trade journals
Local Publications

13. Starting Your Search Learning to use the databases Keys to searching
You can broaden a search to find more sources
You can narrow a search to eliminate irrelevant material
Keys to searching
By author
By descriptor
By publication year, population, and others

14. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Abstract
Brief (150- to 250-word) summary of purpose, method, results, conclusions

15. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Introduction
Statement of current knowledge of the area
Brief summary of related research
Logic behind the study
Hypotheses to be tested

16. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Method
Description of participants
Apparatus and materials
Equipment used in the study
Stimuli and other materials used in the study

17. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Procedure
What the researcher and the participants actually did during data collection

18. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Results
Patterns of behaviors among participants
Differences in behaviors across groups?
Correlated measures

19. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Results
Results of statistical tests
t-tests
Analysis of variance (F-test)
Correlations
Effect sizes
Confidence intervals

20. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
Discussion
Meaning of results
Explanation of participant behavior
Relation of results and conclusions to work cited in the introduction
Questions still to be answered
New ideas to pursue

21. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
References (in APA style)
Work actually cited in the paper
Journal articles
Books
Book chapters
Web sites

22. How to Read a Journal Article
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper
References (in APA style)
Work actually cited in the paper
Personal communication
Any other source
Important for avoiding plagiarism

23. Practical Questions in Planning Research
Making the research process manageable
Generating operational definitions of abstract concepts
Determining appropriate measurements
Establishing sampling techniques

24. Different Ways of Studying Behavior
Measuring Complex Concepts
Identifying hypothetical constructs
Using operational definitions to study those constructs
Example: The Social Readjustment Rating Scale to measure stress
Items causing stress: Death of a spouse, change in work, Christmas, change in recreation
Outcomes: Greater change (positive or negative) leads to greater stress response

25. Different Ways of Studying Behavior
Measuring Complex Concepts
Examples of Operational Definitions
Depression
Score on Beck Depression Inventory as measurement of level of depression
After reading negative statements, participants are categorized as being in depressed state

26. Different Ways of Studying Behavior
Measuring Complex Concepts
Examples of Operational Definitions
Happiness
Self-report score
Amount of smiling and facial muscle activity

27. Different Ways of Studying Behavior
Measuring Complex Concepts
Examples of Operational Definitions
Happiness
Self-report score
Amount of smiling and facial muscle activity

28. Conducting Your Study Determining the Research Setting
Laboratory research
Often for theoretical research
Not a natural setting
Greater control of the situation
Field research
Often for applied research
More natural setting
Less control of the situation

29. Conducting Your Study Approaches to Psychological Research
Observational
Usually without intervention
Correlational
Seeing how two (or more variables) co-vary

30. Conducting Your Study Approaches to Research Case studies Longitudinal
Relatively rare
In-depth study of a single person
Longitudinal
Extended study of a group over time

31. Conducting Your Study Approaches to Research Archival research
Using existing information or data to study a behavioral question
Qualitative
Often focused on holistic analysis rather than detailed quantitative data

32. Choosing Your Participants or Subjects
Population
The entire set of people of interest
Sample
A subset of the population of interest
Representative sample
Sample that is like the population with respect to the measurement being made

33. Choosing Your Participants or Subjects
Deciding on Number of Participants
Homogeneity of participants affects variability in results
When samples consist of people who are similar, you may need fewer participants
When samples consist of people who are dissimilar, you may need more participants

34. Choosing Your Participants or Subjects
Deciding on Number of Participants
Effect size
Small effects require larger samples to spot significant patterns
Large effects require smaller samples to spot significant patterns

35. Probability Sampling Very rare in psychology
Allows generalization to the population
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Every person has a specified probability of being included
Systematic Sampling
Variation on SRS that leads to satisfactory outcomes
Every nth person is selected from a list

36. Probability Sampling Types of Probability Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Subpopulations are identified
People are selected randomly from the subpopulations

37. Probability Sampling Types of Probability Sampling Cluster Sampling
Groups of people are identified (e.g., based on location)
Participants are all selected from the groups
Different from stratified random sampling in that people in the groups do not share particular characteristics (other than location)

38. Nonprobability Sampling
Representativeness of sample may be questionable
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Using whatever sample is accessible

39. Nonprobability Sampling
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
Quota Sampling
Creating subgroups (e.g., female, male) in convenience sample
Shows the same limitations as other nonprobability sampling techniques

40. Nonprobability Sampling
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
Purposive (Judgemental) Sampling
Using a sample with particular characteristics, such as expertise in some area
Shows the same limitations as other nonprobability sampling techniques

41. Nonprobability Sampling
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
Chain-Referral Sampling
Using one person from a group to identify a second person or multiple people who may, in turn, identify yet more participants
Useful for finding hidden populations