1. Hydrogen Fuel Cells

2. Hydrogen (H2) is a fuel not an energy source
Hydrogen (H2) is a fuel not an energy source. It is the most abundant element but must be removed from larger molecules like water or petroleum.

3. Production Hydrogen can be produced from
Fossil Fuels (currently 90% of 42 mtons/yr)
Water

4. Production Fossil Fuels
Coal
converted to mixture of hydrogen (50%), methane (35%), and carbon monoxide (8%)
Steam Reforming Methane (SRM)
Most efficient, widely used, and cheapest
Partial Oxidation
Range of feed stocks, 75% SRM
Directly cracking Methane or other hydrocarbons

5. Production Fossil Fuels
The downside:
All of these methods release CO2

6. Production Water: Electrolysis
Electricity + H2O → H2 + O + H2O (steam)
Large-scale units using alkaline electrolyte can run at 70–75% efficiency (EE - H2 )
Smaller systems with polymer electrolytes reach 80–85% efficiency (EE - H2 )
Steam electrolyzers in development may be able to reach 90% efficiency (EE - H2 )

7. Production Water: Electrolysis
When using electricity generated from thermal power stations the overall efficiency of converting fossil fuel to hydrogen via electrolysis would, typically, be only about 30%. (Rand, Dell, 2005)
CO2 is released at the power plant

8. Production Water: Direct Methods
Thermochemical
Could utilize waste heat from a nuclear plant
Could be achieved with solar mirrors
Photoelectrolysis – sunlight to H2
presently only 1–2% efficiency
new technique reporting 4.5% efficiency
Biophotolysis – algae to H2

9. Production Review
Congressional Research Service

10. Hydrogen Storage
The Challenge: store large amounts of hydrogen at ambient temperature and pressure.
-compressed gas tanks
-cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks
-metal hydrides
-chemical reactions (e.g. hydrolysis)
-nanomaterials
One solution: a three-dimensional lattice of tiny hollow cubes, each capable of storing eight hydrogen molecules inside
Jeff Long, UC-Berkeley

11. Hydrogen Storage
J.T.S. Irvine / Journal of Power Sources 136 (2004) 203–207

12. Uses Ways to release the energy
Catalytic Combustion
High control, low temperatures possible
Heating, cooking
Direct Steam Generation
Burn it with pure oxygen to form pure steam
Peak load generation
Internal Combustion Engine
More efficient (20%) less powerful (15%) than gasoline ICE
Can be used in gas turbines and jets
Fuel Cells

13. Uses Fuel Cell
Inputs: Hydrogen Oxygen
Outputs: Electricity Water Heat

14. Uses Types of Fuel Cells
Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEMFC)
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC)
Direct Methanol fuel cells (DMFC)
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

15. Uses Types of Fuel Cells
Overall reaction is the same
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
Low temperature fuel cells
AFC, PEMFC, PAFC, DMFC
High temperature fuel cells
MCFC, SOFC
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
Vehicles
Small-scale distributed power generation

16. Uses Applications of Fuel Cells

17. Uses Applications of Fuel Cells
Portable Devices (Direct Methanol)
Cell Phone
Laptops
Field Equipment for military
Distributed Generation
Commercial and Residential stationary
Light Duty Vehicles

18. Uses Applications of Fuel Cells
V. Ananthachar, J.J. Duffy / Solar Energy 78 (2005) 687–694

19. Energy/National Security
Total U.S. primary energy production and consumption, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025.
SOURCE: EIA (2003)

20. Energy Diversity
U.S. primary energy consumption, by fuel type, historical and projected, 1970 to 2025.
SOURCE: EIA (2003).

21. Environment/Climate Change
U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, by sector and fuels, SOURCE: EIA (2002)

22. Environment/Climate Change
Estimated volume of carbon releases from passenger cars and light-duty trucks: current hydrogen production technologies (fossil fuels), 2000–2050. Source: NAS

23. Public Health Particulate air pollution Smog Other air pollutants
htttp://airnow.gov

24. Feasibility of a U.S. Hydrogen Economy Steven Smriga Scripps Institution of Oceanography
                      
             

25. Policy and Political Milestones
2002: U.S. President Bush launches FreedomCAR, a partnership with automakers to advance research needed to increase practicality and affordability of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
2003: Bush State of the Union Address announces $1.2 billion hydrogen fuel initiative to develop technologies for hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure needed to power fuel cell vehicles and stationary fuel cell power sources
2004: Governor Schwarzenegger launches California’s Hydrogen Highway Network initiative
2005: CA Senate Bill 76: $6.5 million in funding for state-sponsored hydrogen demonstration projects through 2006

26. Hydrogen Production using Domestic Resources
Major driver: Reduction in dependence on foreign oil
“The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the hydrogen fuel initiative and FreedomCAR initiatives may reduce our demand for petroleum by over 11 million barrels per day by 2040 – approximately the amount of oil America imports today.”
“America imports 55 percent of the oil it consumes; that is expected to grow to 68 percent by 2025.”
- January 2003

27. Hydrogen Production using Domestic Resources
Consumption factor*
Coal
1.3
Natural gas
1.2
Biomass
2.4
Domestic oil ??
Wind
140
Solar
>740
Nuclear
3.2
*Factor by which U.S. would need to increase current consumption of this resource to produce required hydrogen equivalent
Source: U.S. Dept. of Energy, H2 Posture Plan, 2004

28. Source: National Fuel Cell Research Center, UC-Irvine

29. Hydrogen: Toward Zero Emissions
Combined heat and power systems
Carbon capture and storage
Future energy sources: wave, geothermal, nuclear fusion
Energy storage of renewables
Modules that couple wind and solar
with hydrogen production
Capture intermittent output
Batteries may be superior for short term
applications
Contributes to distributed generation

30. Making Fuel Cells Affordable
Barriers include:
durability
fuel supply (some FCs require extremely pure fuel), and
raw materials (e.g. platinum and other precious metals used as a catalyst)

31. Making Fuel Cells Affordable
Factors toward weakening
these barriers:
Widespread fuel cell vehicle demonstration projects
California Hydrogen Highway (e.g. Chula Vista)
Canada, Japan, EU, others
Fuel cells already used in stationary power backup systems
Public-private partnerships and alliances setting goals
Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA)

32. The overall U. S. hydrogen market is estimated at $798
The overall U.S. hydrogen market is estimated at $798.1 million in 2005 and is expected to rise to $1,605.3 million in 2010.
The overall European hydrogen market is estimated to be about $368 million in 2005 and is expected to grow to $740 million in 2010.
Source: Fuji-Keizai USA, Inc.: 2005 Hydrogen Market, Hydrogen R&D and Commercial Implication in The U.S. and E.U.

33. Reduction in Carbon Emissions
hydrogen fuel cell efficiency: 40-60% combustion engine efficiency: ~35%
potential for cleaner energy production
Source: U.S. Dept. of Energy

34. Transition to Hydrogen Vehicles
Possible optimistic market scenario showing assumed fraction of hydrogen fuel cell and hybrid vehicles in the United States, 2000 to Sales of fuel cell light-duty vehicles and their replacement of other vehicles are shown.
Source: The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs (2004); National Academies Press.

35. Source: Dept. of Energy, Hydrogen Posture Plan

36.              
Source: Dept. of Energy, Hydrogen Posture Plan

37. Challenges to the Hydrogen Economy
Ted Beglin
Two aspects:
Feasibility
Misalignment with goals

38. Can it happen? Feasibility
Chicken and the Egg
Cost of infrastructure
Competition
Storage
Public Perception
Land Usage

39. Can it happen? Chicken and the Egg
The FCV market depends upon the availability of a hydrogen infrastructure
The hydrogen infrastructure must be promoted by hydrogen use
Neither serves any purpose without the other

40. Can it happen? Cost of Infrastructure
Replacement value of the current energy system and related end-use equipment would be in the multi-trillion-dollar range
Both the supply side (the technologies and resources that produce hydrogen) and the demand side (the technologies and devices that convert hydrogen to services desired in the marketplace) must undergo a fundamental transformation.
In no prior case has the government attempted to promote the replacement of an entire, mature, networked energy infrastructure before market forces did the job
Market pressures from lacking petroleum supplies and/or US participation in a CO2 credit-trade market are needed to push this forward
NAS, 2004

41. Can it happen? Competition
Incumbent technologies do not stand still, but continue to improve.
The cost of the current energy infrastructure is already sunk, favoring technologies that use it.
Gasoline, Diesel, and CNG Hybrid Vehicles
Bio-diesel and Ethanol

42. Can it happen? Competition
NCEP, 2004

43. Can it happen? Storage
Goals for Hydrogen On-Board Storage to Achieve Minimum Practical Vehicle Driving Ranges
Energy Density
General Motors Minimum Goals
Compressed/Liquid Hydrogen (Currently)
DOE Goal
Megajoules per kilogram 6
4/10
10.8
Megajoules per liter
3/4
9.72
NOTES: Energy densities are based on total storage system volume or mass. Energy densities for compressed hydrogen are at pressures of 10,000 psi.
SOURCES: DOE (2002b, 2003b)

44. Can it happen? Storage Compressed gas tanks
Lacks energy to volume ratio
For example, for more than a 200-mile driving range, today’s natural gas vehicles usually require two 5,000 psi tanks or one 10,000 psi tank, taking up most of the trunk. (NAS)
Cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanks
About 30% of the energy in the hydrogen is wasted in the liquefaction and filling process
Emptying equipment is both complex and costly
Boil-off rate is such that the liquid can only be stored for a few days at most. (Rand, Dell 2005)

45. Can it happen? Storage
Advanced methods may have to provide the solution, but are still in development
metal hydrides
chemical reactions (e.g. hydrolysis)
nanomaterials

46. Can it happen? Public Perception
Public perception of safety is affected by Hindenburg Syndrome
However, it is not clear that H2 is any more dangerous than natural gas or gasoline
Irony: Because of high diffusion, it may be safer
Addison Bain, NASA veteran presented compelling evidence in 1997 that the Hindenburg’s cotton covering was coated by a substance with similarities to rocket fuel. The same ship filled with inert helium still would have burned.
Peter Hoffman, Tomorrow’s Energy, 2001

47. Can it happen? Land Usage
New transmission lines are increasingly difficult to build, largely because of public opposition.
The transmission system is being used for purposes for which it was not originally designed, and upgrades are not keeping pace with the increasing loads on it.
Unless this situation is corrected, it may hamper the use of electrolyzers in distributed hydrogen generation facilities.
Building pipelines to carry hydrogen may encounter some of the same sitting problems.

48. Should it happen? Reliance on Natural Gas rather than Oil
Carbon Sequestration
Picking a winner

49. Should it happen? Energy/National Security
We could be trading one foreign dependency for another
The initial hydrogen economy would most likely depend upon the reforming of natural gas
If natural gas is used to produce hydrogen, and if, on the margin, natural gas is imported, there would be little if any reduction in total energy imports, because natural gas for hydrogen would displace petroleum for gasoline.
NAS, 2004

50. Should it happen? Environment/Climate Change
Two sources of carbon stand out
Coal burned for electricity
Petroleum burned in transportation fuels
Hydrogen must address both to benefit the environment
U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, by sector and fuels, SOURCE: EIA (2002)

51. Should it happen? Environment/Climate Change
Successful carbon sequestration is necessary, otherwise CO2 from petroleum will come from fossil fuel reformation to produce hydrogen
Energy shifted from oil could result in massive coal mining to make up the difference
Energy/National security would be addressed but not greenhouse gases
Conservation, advancement of renewables, and nuclear power would be the only emission free hydrogen if CO2 sequestration is not realized

52. Should it happen? Public Health
Although fuel cells only emit water, internal combustion use produces NOx, leading to smog
Unintended consequences of H2 leakage may include reduction in global oxidative capacity, increase in tropospheric ozone, and increase in stratospheric water that would exacerbate halogen induced ozone losses (Dubey, Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2003)

53. Should it happen? Energy Diversity
Quite the opposite, it could reduce us to predominately rely on coal
The hydrogen economy needs support from some combination of increased renewable power, reinvigoration of nuclear power, and conservation to promote diversity

54. Should it happen? Energy Diversity
Picking winners?
The track record
50s Nuclear power “too cheap to meter”
Late 70s, early 80s oil price assumptions to justify large amounts of spending
90s battery powered cars
Other technologies, should funding favor H2?
Battery technology
Biomass based fuels

55. alternatives to gasoline engines:
clean diesels
gasoline-electric hybrids
hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2ICE)
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCV)

56. Physical and regulatory infrastructure
Safety codes and standards
Public awareness about fueling systems
Training for fuel distribution personnel

57. Types of Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
Fuel cell types are generally characterized by electrolyte material. The electrolyte is the substance between the positive and negative terminals, serving as the bridge for the ion exchange that generates electrical current.