1. Thrust into Space
Maxwell W. Hunter, II

2. Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion
Momentum is conserved, equation 1- 1

3. Force
Force, equation 1-2
Weight, equation 1-3

4. Energy Kinetic energy, equation 1-4
Ratio of kinetic energy of gun to bullet, equation 1-5

5. Guns as Rockets
Paris Gun, WW I
Change in velocity, equation 1-6

6. Rocket Engines
Thrust, equation 1-7

7. Rocket Nomenclature
Figure 1-1

8. Fuel Consumption Specific impulse of engine, equation 1-8
Effective exhaust velocity, equation 1-9

9. Power
Power expended, equation 1-10
Effective power, equation 1-11

10. Internal Energy Release
Exit velocity, equation 1-12
Combustion temperature, equation 1-13
Velocity of molecule, equation 1-14

11. Rocket Energy Efficiency
Figure 1-2

12. Nozzle Altitude Effect
Figure 1-3

13. Nozzle Altitude Performance
Figure 1-4

14. Pump Power Pump power, equation 1-15
Pump power for both propellants, equation 1-16

15. The Rocket Equation Change in velocity, equation 1-17
Impulsive velocity, equation 1-18

16. The Rocket Equation
Figure 1-5

17. Useful Load
Useful load, equation 1-19

18. The Rocket Equation
Figure 1-6

19. Energy Efficiency Kinetic energy of useful load, equation 1-20
Total energy expended by exhaust, equation 1-21

20. External Energy Efficiency
Figure 1-7

21. Effect of Initial Velocity
Increase of kinetic energy of useful load, equation 1-22
Total kinetic energy expended, equation 1- 23

22. External Energy Efficiency
Figure 1-8

23. Ballistics Flat earth, no drag
From Newton’s Laws of Motion, equations in 2-1
Range vs. velocity, equation 2-2

24. Energy Potential energy, equation 2-3
Ratio of kinetic energy increase to initial kinetic energy, equation 2-4

25. Forces During Motor Burning
Velocity loss due to gravity, equation 2-5
Figure 2-1

26. Airplane Lift/Drag Ratio
Airplane energy, equation 2-6
Cruising efficiency, equation 2-7
Velocity equivalent of energy used, equation 2-8

27. Airplane Lift/Drag Ratio
Figure 2-2

28. Automobile Lift/Drag Ratio
Figure 2-3

29. Ship Lift/Drag Ratio
Figure 2-4

30. Solid-Propellant Rockets
Figure 2-5

31. Solid Rockets Acceleration of guns or rockets, equation 2- 9
Honest John Missile

32. Required Acceleration
Figure 2-6

33. Four Decades of Development
Figure 2-7

34. Theoretical Propellant Performance
Vacuum ε = 40
Sea Level
Oxidizer
Fuel
Mixture Ratio
Specific Gravity
Isp (sec)
NH4ClO4
20% Al
1.74
314
266
H2O2
N2H4
2.09
1.26
325
287
N2O4
1.40
1.22
324
292
O2 (cyro)
Kerosene
2.67
1.02
300
0.95
1.07
343
313

35. Elliptical Orbit Nomenclature
Figure 3-1

36. Circular Orbits Gravity as a function of distance, equation 3-1
Velocity of satellite, equation 3-2
Period, equation 3-3
Period, equation 3-4

37. Potential Energy Potential energy, equation 3-5
Maximum potential energy, equation 3-6

38. Escape Velocity
Escape velocity, equation 3-7

39. The Vis-Vita Law Kinetic and potential energy, equation 3-8
Conservation of angular momentum, equation 3-9
Perigee velocity vs. escape velocity at perigee, equation 3-10
Velocity, equation 3-11

40. The Vis-Vita Law Velocity and circular velocity, equation 3-12
Orbital period, equation 3-13

41. Optimum Ballistic Missile Trajectories
Figure 3-2

42. Global Rocket Velocities
Figure 3-3

43. Hohmann Transfer
Figure 3-4

44. Velocities Required to Establish Orbit
Figure 3-5
Potential energy and kinetic energy, equation 3-14

45. Planet Escape Velocities and Radii
Escape Velocity (feet/sec)
Radius (Earth = 1.0)
Earth
36,700
1.0
Venus
33,600
0.97
Pluto
32,700
1.1
Mars
16,400
0.53
Mercury
13,700
0.38

46. Satellite Escape Velocities and Radii
Satellite (Planet)
Escape Velocity (feet/sec)
Radius (Earth = 1.0)
Triton (Neptune)
10,400
0.31
Ganymede (Jupiter)
9,430
0.39
Titan (Saturn)
8,900
Io (Jupiter)
8,250
0.26
Moon (Earth)
7,800
0.272
Callisto (Jupiter)
7,450
0.37
Europa (Jupiter)
6,900
0.23

47. Gravity Losses
Effective gravity, equation 3-15

48. Large, Solid Propellant Motors
Figure 3-6

49. The Planets Orbital Data
Semi-Major Axis AU
Perihelion AU
Aphelion AU
Mercury
0.387
0.308
0.467
Venus
0.723
0.718
0.728
Earth
1.000
0.983
1.017
Mars
1.524
1.381
1.666
Jupiter
5.203
4.951
5.455
Saturn
9.539
9.008
10.070
Uranus
19.182
18.277
20.087
Neptune
30.058
29.800
30.315

50. The Planets Orbital Data
Mean Celestial Longitude
Planet
Off Ascending Node
of Perihelion
Epoch, 1/1/1996
Mercury
47.93°
76.93°
210.29°
Venus
76.38
131.1°
84.87°
Earth
102.12°
98.89°
Mars
49.3°
335.44°
324.31°
Jupiter
100.11°
13.5°
87.32°
Saturn
113.42°
91.5°
347.57°
Uranus
73.9°
168.65°
166.43°
Neptune
131.4°
53°
230.02°

51. The Planets Orbital Data
Inclination
Planet
Orbital to Ecliptic
Equatorial to Orbit
Mercury
7.00
Venus
3.39
Earth
23.45
Mars
1.85
25.20
Jupiter
1.31
3.12
Saturn
2.49
26.75
Uranus
0.77
97.98
Neptune
1.77 29

52. The Planets Orbital Data
Orbital Velocity About Sun (ft/sec)
Period of Revolution (years)
Mercury
157,000
0.240
Venus
114,800
0.615
Earth
97,600
1.0
Mars
79,100
1.881
Jupiter
42,800
11.86
Saturn
31,600
29.46
Uranus
22,200
84.02
Neptune
17,800
164.78

53. Solar System Data Jupiter’s Moons Diameter (miles) Surface Gravity
Period (days)
Escape Velocity (fps) Io
2,060
0.195
1.77
8,250
Europa
1,790
0.156
3.55
6,900
Ganymede
3,070
0.170
7.15
9,430
Callisto
2,910
0.112
16.69
7,450

54. The Outer Solar System
Figure 4-1

55. Hyperbolic Excess Velocity
Vis-Viva Law, hyperbolic excess velocity, equation 4-1
Equation 4-2
Equation 4-3

56. Hyperbolic Excess Velocity
Figure 4-2

57. Solar System Hyperbolic Excess Velocity
Figure 4-3

58. Hohmann Transfer Velocities
Figure 4-4

59. Hohmann Transfer Travel Time
Figure 4-5

60. Synodic Period of Planets
Synodic period, equation 4-4
Figure 4-6

61. Solar Probe Type Missions with Two Impulse Transfers
Figure 4-7

62. Elastic Impact Analogy for the Use of Planetary Energy
Figure 4-8

63. Use of Planetary Energy
Weight of vehicle, equation 4-5
Equation 4-6

64. Planetary Swing-Around Angle
Figure 4-9

65. Distance from Center of Sun (Astronomical Units) Solar Probe Velocity Requirements
Figure 4-10

66. Out-of-Ecliptic Velocity Requirements
Figure 4-11

67. Solar System Travel Times
Figure 4-12

68. Planetary Arrival Velocities
Figure 4-13

69. Planetary Capture Velocities
Figure 4-14

70. Payload Velocity Requirements
Figure 4-15

71. Selected Comets Comet Perihelion (AU) Aphelion (AU) Period (years)
Perihelion Time
Encke
0.339
4.09
3.30
Forbes
1.545
5.36
6.42
D’Arrest
1.378
5.73
6.70
Faye
1.652
5.95
7.41
Halley
0.587
35.0
76.03

72. Earth-Mars Launch Windows
Figure 4-16

73. Earth-Mars Launch Windows
Figure 4-17

74. Round Trip Synodic Period Effects
Figure 4-18

75. Theoretical Liquid Propellant Performance Equilibrium Flow
Vacuum
Sea Level
Oxidizer
Fuel
Mixture Ratio
Specific Gravity
Isp
Oxygen
Hydrogen
4.5
0.31
456
391
Fluorine
9.0
0.50
475
411
Ammonia
3.31
1.12
416
360
O2-Difluoride
Kerosene
3.8
1.28
396
341
Hydrazine
Diborate
1.16
0.63
401
339
Pentaborane
1.26
0.79
390
328

76. High-Performance Chemical Rockets
Figure 4-19

77. New Types of Engines Wall stress, equation 4-7
Engine chamber weight, equation 4-8

78. New Engine Types
Figure 4-20

79. Nuclear Thermal Rockets
Einstein’s famous equation 4-9
Kiwi-A rocket engine

80. Graphite Solid-Core Engine
Figure 4-21

81. Specific Power (watts/gm)
Isotopic Heat Sources
Parent Isotope
Half-Life (years)
Type of Decay
Specific Power (watts/gm)
Shielding
Pure
Fuel Compound
Cesium-137 30
β/γ
0.42
0.067
Heavy
Plutonium-238 89 α
0.56
0.39
Minor
Curium-244 18
2.8
2.49
Moderate
Polonium-210
0.38
141
134
Cobalt-60
5.3
17.4
1.7

82. Nuclear Vehicle Shielding Comparison
Figure 4-22

83. Required Fuel Weights for Single-Stage Space Launch Vehicles
Figure 4-23

84. Heavy Velocity Rockets and Gravity Fields
Travel time, equation 5-1
Minimum travel time in terms of inner and outer distance, equation 5-2
Maximum travel time, equation 5-3

85. Minimum Travel Times from Earth Including Braking Requirements
Figure 5-1

86. Average Travel Times from Earth Including Braking Requirements
Figure 5-2

87. Solar System Synodic Periods
Figure 5-3

88. Travel Times Between Planets
Figure 5-4

89. Escape with Low Acceleration
Velocity required to escape, equation 5-4
For launch from circular orbit, equation 5-5

90. Total Velocity to Escape
Figure 5-5

91. Heliocentric Velocity Requirements
Time to generate velocity at constant acceleration, equation 5-6
Figure 5-6

92. Specific Impulse From Nuclear Reactions
Figure 5-7

93. Typical Gaseous Core Engines
Figure 5-8
Power output, equation 5-7

94. Cost of Nuclear Fission Fuel and Propellant
Figure 5-9

95. Cooling Limitations
Amount by which gaseous heating raises specific impulse, equation 5-8

96. Thrust/Weight Ratio of Gaseous Fission Engines
Figure 5-10

97. Types of Electrical Rocket Thrusters
Figure 5-11

98. Electric Rocket Performance
Characteristic velocity, equation 5-9
For perfect efficiency, weight of power supply relates to weight of propellant, equation 5- 10

99. Electrical Rocket Performance
Figure 5-12

100. Single-Stage Spaceship Fuel and Propellant Costs
Figure 5-13

101. Transportation vs. Ammunition Re-Use Assumptions
Figure 5-14

102. Spaceship Payload Capability
Figure 5-15

103. Single-Stage Spaceship Fuel, Propellant, and Structure Costs
Figure 5-16

104. Single-Stage Spaceship Fuel, Propellant, and Structure Costs
Figure 5-17

105. Dose to Ground Observer from Gaseous Core Rockets
Figure 5-18

106. Gaseous Fission Powered Spaceship
Figure 5-19

107. Acceleration Distance
Figure 5-20

108. The Near Stars
Figure 6-1

109. The Galaxy
Figure 6-2

110. Hypothetical Galactic Community
Figure 6-3

111. Time Dilation
Ship time, equation 6- 1

112. Interstellar Travel Time Dilation Effects
Figure 6-4

113. Fusion Rockets Initial weight vs. final weight, equation 6-2
Rocket braking on arrival, equation 6-3

114. Fusion Starship Weight Ratio
Figure 6-5

115. Fusion Starship Power
Figure 6-6

116. Cost of Nuclear Rocket Fuel and Propellant
Figure 6-7

117. Photon Rockets Effective exhaust velocity, equation 6-4
Relativistic rocket equation 6-5
Exhaust power of photon beam, equation 6-6

118. Starship Weight Ratio
Figure 6-8

119. Mass Annihilation Rockets
Mass annihilation rocket equation 6-7
Mass annihilation rocket braking equation 6-8

120. Starship Power
Figure 6-9

121. Mass Annihilation Rockets
Overall time dilation effect, equation 6-9
Relation between time dilation achieved and rocket weight, equation 6-10
Equation 6-11