1. I.C. ENGINES
LECTURE NO: 10
(14 Apr 2014)

2. Fuel Spray Formation Spray Formation Boundary 15 mm 15 mm Core

3. Fuel Spray Formation Fuel issues from the jet in a liquid stream
The surface of the liquid come in contact with air and the friction between the two results in the formation of ligaments or threads, that break into small particles and form an envelope surrounding the core of the spray
Core consist of highest velocity particles

4. Fuel Spray Formation
Dispersion of the droplets in any one cross section of the spray becomes more even:
As the distance is increased from the orifice to cross section
As the air density is increased
As the oil viscosity is decreased
As the injection is increased

5. Fuel Spray Formation Measurement of the drop size indicate:
Greatest number if droplets are less then 5 microns in diameter
Increased the injection pressure decreased the mean droplets size
Increase the air density decreased the mean droplet size
Increase the oil viscosity increase the mean droplet size
Increase the orifice size increase the size of the droplet

6. Fuel Spray Characteristics
Degree of Atomization
Penetration
Dispersion

7. Fuel Spray Characteristics
Diesel engine requires hard sprays because soft sprays do not have adequate penetration in the dense air
Spray must be direct to various parts of the combustion chamber by multiple orifices of the nozzle or by using more than one nozzle in open chambers in the absence of strong air motion
Inlet inducted swirl is not necessary with divided chambers. These chambers can give satisfactory performances with single nozzle
Spray duration at full load should not exceed 30˚ crank angle

8. Degree of Atomization
Fuel velocity is the most important factor affecting the degree of atomization
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∞ 𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑝 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
Therefore increase the injection pressure reduces the mean diameter of the particle as well as variation in size
Nukiyama and Tansawa develop an empirical equation for computing the average drop diameter which has the same surface –volume ratio as that obtained by the entire spray
𝑑= σ 𝑤 ρ [ μ σρ ] [ 1000 𝑄 𝑙 𝑄 𝑎 ] 1.5

9. Degree of Atomization
𝑑= σ 𝑤 ρ [ μ σρ ] [ 1000 𝑄 𝑙 𝑄 𝑎 ] 1.5
d = average drop diameter in microns (10-4 cm)
ω = relative velocity between air and liquid stream (m/s)
ρ = liquid density ( 0.7 to 1.2) ( g/cm3 )
σ = liquid surface tension ( to 0.5) ( poise)
𝑄 𝑙 𝑄 𝑎 =𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
This value is very small
Therefore
𝑑= σ ω ρ because surface tension is very important

10. Numerical Example
Determine the average drop diameter for the 31.5 kgf/cm2 injection pressure. Values of fuel density and surface tension may be taken as 0.86 g/cc and 28 dynes/cm respectively
Formula
ω = 𝐶 𝑣 2𝑔 ∆𝑝 ρ

11. Numerical Example Formula ω = 𝐶 𝑣 2𝑔 ∆𝑝 ρ
ω = 𝐶 𝑣 2𝑔 ∆𝑝 ρ
= ∗ ∗ ∗ 10 3
= 80 m/s
𝑑= σ ω ρ =
=42 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠=42 ∗ 10 −4 𝑐𝑚

12. Penetration Jet Velocity
An increase in injection pressure increase jet velocity
Spray tip penetration increases with jet velocity
Air Density
An increase in combustion chamber air density decreases the penetration

13. Penetration Orifice Diameter
An increase in orifice diameter increase the penetration of the spray tip.
Orifice length to diameter ratio between 4:1 and 6:1 results in maximum penetration.
The minimum penetration is reached with ratio 1:1 and 3:1

14. Penetration Orifice Diameter As per schwitzer 𝑆= 𝑓 1 (𝑡 ∆𝑝
𝑆= 𝑓 1 (𝑡 ∆𝑝
𝑆 𝑑 = 𝑓 2 𝑡 𝑑
𝑆 1+ 𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑓 3 (𝑡, 𝑑 𝑎 )
Where
S = Penetration time
𝝙p = Pressure difference across orifice
d = Orifice diameter
da = air density in atm

15. Numerical Example
Penetration of 20 cm in 15.7 millisec is obtained with 140 kgf/cm2 injection pressure. Values of fuel density and surface tension may be taken as 0.86 g/cc and 28 dynes/cm respectively
Formula
ω = 𝐶 𝑣 2𝑔 ∆𝑝 ρ

26. KEY TERMS Electronic ignition system (EIS)
Electronic spark timing (EST)
Flyback voltage
Hall-effect switch
High energy ignition (HEI)
Igniter
Ignition coil
Ignition control (IC)
Ignition control module (ICM)
Ignition timing
Inductive reactance
Initial timing
Ion-sensing ignition
Iridium spark plugs
Knock sensor (KS)
Magnetic pulse generator
Magnetic sensor
Married coil
Mutual induction
Optical sensors
Paired cylinder
Pickup coil (pulse generator)
Ping
Platinum spark plugs
Polarity
Primary ignition circuit
Saturation
Schmitt trigger
Secondary ignition circuit
Self-induction
Spark knock
Spark output (SPOUT)
Switching
Tapped transformer
Transistor
Trigger
True transformer
Turns ratio
Up-integrated ignition
Waste-spark ignition

27. Function
An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture at the right instant.
It is best known in the field of internal combustion engines but also has other applications, e.g. in oil-fired and gas-fired boilers.
Hot spark across spark plug gap
Distributes high voltage to each plug in correct sequence
Time the spark so it arrives as piston nearing TDC
Adjusts spark timing with load & speed

28. History
The earliest internal combustion engines used a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition
These were later replaced by systems using an electric spark. The instant of sparking is decided by the ignition system.

29. FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
Electricity is lazy
Electricity wants to go to ground
electron theory (-) to (+)
conventional theory (+) to (-)
Conductors
Insulators

30. ELECTRICAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Volts---- Push V
Current ---Quantity A
Resistance ----Resistance to flow 

31. OHM’S LAW
E = I x R
E / I = R
E / R = I E I R

32. MAGNETISM Alike charges repel (-) (-)
Dissimilar charges attract (-) (+)

33. MAGNETS & ELECTRICITY Magnets can be used to for electricity
Electricity can be used to form magnets
Electricity when applied to magnets make stronger magnets

34. IGNITION COILS Coils of wire wrapped around an iron core
Step up transformer

35. SPARK PLUGS
Spark plugs contain an air gap for electricity to create a spark and make a seal

36. HEAT RANGES
The difference between a "hot" and a "cold" spark plug is in the shape of the ceramic tip.
The manufacturers will select the right-temperature plug for each engine.
Some engines with high-performance naturally generate more heat, so they need colder plugs.
If the spark plug gets too hot, it could ignite the fuel before the spark fires
It is important to stick with the right type of plug
Engine that burn oil may need hot plugs

37. MEASURING SPARK PLUG TEMPERATURE

38. TYPES OF ELECTRODES
Center electrode
Side electrode

39. SWITCHING DEVICES
Breaker points
Electronic

40. BREAKER POINTS
Ran by cam shaft

41. ELECTRONIC SWITCHING DEVICES
NO breaker points to burn or wear out

42. Basic Ignition System Operation
Charge builds up in coil (12 volts in)
Creates a magnetic field (windings of wire)
Voltage is stepped up (secondary windings)
Switch open (magnetic field collapses)
High voltage discharged (to plug)

43. IGNITION SYSTEM
Provides a method of turning a spark ignition engine on & off.
Operates on various supply voltages (Battery & Alternator)
Produces high voltage arcs at the spark plug electrode.
Distributes spark to each plug in correct sequence.
Times the spark so that it occurs as the piston nears the TDC on the
compression stroke.
Varies the ignition timing as engine speed, load and other conditions
change.

44. IGNITION PARTS BATTERY provides power for system.
IGNITION SWITCH allows driver to turn ignition on and off.
IGNITION COIL changes battery voltage to 30,000V during
normal operation and has a potential to produce up to 60,000V.
SWITCHING DEVICE mechanical or electronic switch that operates
Ignition coil(Pick-up coil, Crank sensor, Cam sensor).
SPARK PLUG uses high voltage from ignition coil to produce an arc
in the combustion chamber.
IGNITION SYSTEM WIRES connect components.

45. IGNITION CIRCUITS PRIMARY CIRCUIT Includes all the components
working on low voltage
(Battery, Alternator).
SECONDARY CIRCUIT
Consists of wires and points
between coil out-put and the
spark plug ground.

46. IGNITION COIL Primary Windings are made up of several
hundred turns of heavy wire wrapped around
or near the secondary windings.
Secondary Windings consist of several thousand
turns of very fine wire, located inside or near
the secondary windings.

47. DISTRIBUTOR
Actuates the on/off cycle of current flow through the ignition coil primary windings.
It distributes the coils high voltage to the plugs wires.

48. DISTRIBUTOR
It causes the spark to occur at each plug earlier in the compression stroke as engine speed increases, and vice versa.
Changes spark timing.
Some distributor shafts operate the oil pump.

49. POINT IGNITION SYSTEM
PARTS Distributor Cam, Breaker Points, and Condenser.

50. POINT IGNITION SYSTEM
Points are wired in Primary Circuit – When the points are closed, a magnetic field builds in the coil. When the points open, the field collapses and voltage is sent to one of the spark plug.

51. DISTRIBUTOR CAP Insulated plastic cap
Transfers voltage from coil (wire) to Rotor.

52. DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR Transfers voltage from the distributor cap
center terminal(coil) to distributor cap
outer terminals(spark plugs).
Provides spark in the correct Firing Order.
Sometimes the firing order can be found
on the intake manifold.

53. IGNITION TIMING BTDC ATDC Engine RPM Engine Load Firing Order Retard
Advance
Before top dead center
After top dead center
Engine RPM
Engine Load
Firing order

54. FIRING ORDER

55. FIRING ORDER
1,3,4,2
1,2,5,4,3,2
1,5,6,3,4,2,7,8

56. FIRING ORDER

57. CONDENSER High voltage is developed in the secondary ignition coil.
Similarly “Back EMF” is produced in the primary coil (could cause a spark on the primary end) due to sudden collapse of magnetic field.
The condenser prevents this by
slowing down the rate of collapse.
Ok, quick review: Due to magnetic "flux" properties (research Teslar and the "left hand rule" if you want to know more) the inductor (COIL) encourages current flow towards the plug from the secondary winding. But the collapsing magnetic field also produces the phenomenon discussed above called "Back EMF". This 300+ voltage spike in the primary winding would cause a mini-spark of it own across the points. Another words, the primary winding would cause a spark across the points just like the secondary will cause a spark across the plugs. To facilitate the collapse of the primary winding and to prevent point-gap spark a condenser is used.
The condenser is a large capacitor.  Only the automotive industry calls it a condenser (and no, I have no idea why). When the points open this coil collapses. Remember, a coil output is strongest when the collapse is fast and sharp. The condenser slows this collapse by absorbing the initial shock (current) of the primary winding. It helps shape the coil collapse to produce the high power secondary collapse  AND  slows the collapse of the coil just long enough for the points to get far enough apart so the coil back EMF output won't arc across the points. Without a condenser the backflow arcing and heat would destroy the points (sometimes in a matter of seconds). However, the condenser can't be too big either or the coil would collapse too slow and not produce a strong spark. The charge the condenser absorbs while the points are open is releases back to ground when the points close again.
The capacitor also "harmonicly" tunes the coil, raising the peak output voltage and increasing the secondary voltage rise time. This increases the amount of energy transferred to the spark plugs. If the coil secondary voltage rises too quickly, excessive high frequency energy is produced. This energy is then lost into the air-waves by electro-magnetic radiation from the ignition wiring instead of going to the spark plugs where we would like it to go.

58. SPARK PLUGS Used in SI engines Function
Starts the combustion process when the piston is at the TDC.
Electricity converted in to spark by forcing electricity to arc across a gap, just like a bolt of lightning.
Salient Features
Voltage at the spark plug can be anywhere from 40,000 to 100,000 volts.
Spark plugs also transfer heat away from the combustion chamber.

59. SPARK PLUG PLACEMENT
                                                      

60. PARTS OF A SPARK PLUG
Connector (terminal) – connects sparkplug to the ignition system.
Ceramic Insulator – Provides mechanical support to the central electrode.
Resistance - Copper core which connects from the connector and surrounded by insulation.
Spline (ribs) – Improves insulation by providing more resistance to electricity.
Gasket (metal) – arrests leakage from the combustion chamber.

61. PARTS OF A SPARK PLUG CONTD..
Spark plug body – Metal case serves to remove heat from the insulator and transfer to cylinder head. Also acts as a ground for the spark passing from the central electrode to the ground electrode.
Central electrode – connected to the terminal through a resistance in series. Usually made of a copper alloy.
Ground electrode - Made of nickel steel and welded to the spark plug body.
Spark plug gap – Gap between the central electrode and ground electrode

62. TYPES OF SPARK PLUGS Made of ceramic inserts
Has smaller contact area with the metal part of plug
Runs hotter and burns away carbon deposits
Used in most standard engines
Designed with more contact area and less thermal insulation
They run cooler
Used in high compression ratio – high power engines
Hot plug: This type of plug is designed with a ceramic insert that has a smaller contact area with the metal part of the plug. This reduces the heat transfer from the ceramic, making it run hotter and thus burn away more deposits. Cold plugs are designed with more contact area, so they run cooler.

63. SPARK PLUG GAP Disc gauge
Typically designed to have the spark gap adjusted by bending the ground electrode slightly to bring it either closer or further from the central electrode.
Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between 0.045"-0.070" ( mm).
Spark plug gauge
A disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of precise diameters, which is used to measure the gap
a collection of keys of various thicknesses which match the desired gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly.
The main issues with spark plug gaps are:
narrow-gap risk: spark might be too weak/small to ignite fuel;
narrow-gap benefit: plug always fires on each cycle;
wide-gap risk: plug might not fire, or miss at high speeds;
wide-gap benefit: spark is strong for a clean burn.
Disc gauge

64. SPARK PLUGS TELL A STORY
Normal
Worn
Lead Erossion
Insulator Breakage
Minor Melting
Carbon
Over Heating
Fuel/Additive Deposits
Lead Fouled
Oil

65. ESTIMATING ENGINE CONDITION
Spark plug's insulator color provides valuable information about the engine's overall operating condition.
Normal: Grey to Light Golden-Brown Color
This condition is ideal, the spark plug and engine
air/fuel mixture are operating properly.
Dry Fouling: Black Soot Buildup
Air/fuel mixture is too rich, the carburetor settings are incorrect, or the flame arrestor is dirty or has mounting problems.
Spark plug heat range is too cold for the operating conditions.
Ignition system problems causing a weak or intermittent spark.

66. ESTIMATING ENGINE CONDITION CONTD..
Wet Fouling: Shiny, Wet, Black Appearance
Excessive use of the choke (gas fouled)
Prolonged low rpm operation (gas or oil fouled)
Fuel to oil ratio is too rich (oil fouled)
Excess Deposits: Bumpy, Chalky Buildup
Poor fuel quality
Oil leakage into combustion chamber
Improper oil used for premix/injected
Detonation: silver or black specs, melting or breakage at the firing tip
Caused by improper timing
Lean air/fuel mixture can aggravate this condition

67. ESTIMATING ENGINE CONDITION CONTD..
Overheated: White, Blistered, Melted Electrode
Lean air/fuel mixture
Spark plug heat range is too hot for engine operating condition
Plug is not properly gapped and/or tightened onto head
Overly advanced timing
Breakage: Sooty appearance, missing or damage
components of the spark plug
Caused by thermal expansion / contraction of the insulator due to thermal shock
Sudden decreases in temperature can most commonly be coincided with entering a large pool of water while the engine is hot, or a broken water jacket for liquid-cooled engines.

68. SPARK PLUG WIRES Very high resistance wire 1000 ohms per inch
Mostly insulation material
Small conductor material
Must follow firing order

69. IGNITION TIMING
How early or late the spark plug fires in relation to the position of the engine piston.
Ignition timing must change with the changes in engine speed, load, and temperature.

70. IGNITION TIMING
Timing Advance occurs when the plug fires sooner on compression stroke (High engine speed)
Timing Retard occurs when plug fires later on compression stroke
(Lower engine speed)
BASE TIMING Timing without vacuum or computer control.

71. METHODS OF CONTROLLING TIMING
Distributor Centrifugal Advance
Controlled by engine speed.
Consists of two weights and two springs.
At high speeds the weights fly out(held by the springs), rotating the
cam, hence advancing the timing.

72. METHODS OF CONTROLLING TIMING
Vacuum Advance
Controlled by engine intake manifold vacuum and engine load.
The vacuum diaphragm rotates the pickup coil against the direction
of distributor shaft rotation.

73. METHODS OF CONTROLLING TIMING
Electronic Advance Sensors input influences the ignition timing.
Crank shaft Position Sensor (RPM)
Cam Position Sensor (tells which
cylinder is on compression stroke)
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
(engine vacuum and load)

74. METHODS OF CONTROLLING TIMING
Electronic Advance Sensors input influences the ignition timing.
Intake Air Temperature Sensor
Knock Sensor (Retards timing when pinging
or knocking is sensed)
Throttle Position Sensor(TPS)
Engine coolant Temperature

75. IGNITION SYSTEM
Distributor VS Distributor Less Ignition System

76. DISADVANTAGE OF THE MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Breaker contact points require regular replacement because
points are subject to mechanical wear where they ride the cam to open and shut
oxidation and burning at the point contact surfaces from the constant sparking.
Spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to lower engine efficiency.
Beyond average ignition current ~ 3A, service life reduces, thus limiting the power of the spark and ultimate engine speed.