1. References: FTGU Pages 175 - 255
CI Valentine
Navigation
References: FTGU Pages
PO 403

2. Review How often are GFA’s published? Decode this TAF
TAF CYKZ Z 0718/ KT P6SM FEW020 SCT060 OVC130 PROB /0724 VRB15G25KT 2SM +TSRA BR BKN020 OVC050CB FM KT P6SM BKN110 TEMPO 0800/0803 P6SM -SHRA BKN015 FM KT 3SM SHRA BR OVC008 PROB /0806 VRB20G35KT 11/2SM +TSRA BR OVC006CB RMK NXT FCST BY Z=
Issued 4 times a day
Terminal Area Forecast for Buttonville Airport Issued on the 7th at 1742 Zulu For use on the 7th at 1800Zulu to the 8th at 0600Zulu Winds forecast to be 150 degrees True at 7 knots Visibility forecast greater than 6 statute miles Few clouds forecast at 2000 feet above ground level Scattered clouds forecast at 6000 feet above ground Overcast clouds forecast at feet above ground 40% probability between 7th from Zulu that: Winds will be variable direction at 15 knots gusting to 25 knots Visibility will be 2 statute miles There will be thunderstorms and heavy rain and mist Ceiling will be broken at 2000 feet above ground and Clouds will be overcast at 5000 feet above ground due to cumulonimbus From the 8th at 0000 Zulu Winds are forecast 050 degrees true at 3 knots Greater than 6 statute mile visibility is forecast Clouds forecast broken at feet above ground 50% chance during 8th between Zulu that Greater than 6 statute miles visibility Light rain showers Broken ceiling at 1500 feet above ground From the 8th at 0300 Zulu Winds forecast 020 degrees true at 5 knots Visibility forecast 3 statute miles Forecast rain showers and mist Clouds forecast overcast at 800 feet above ground 30% chance during 8th from Zulu Winds variable direction at 20knots gusting to 35 knots Visibility 1 and ½ statute miles Thunderstorms and heavy rain and mist Ceiling overcast at 600 feet above ground due to cumulonimbus Next forecast by the 8th at 0000Zulu

3. Topics to be covered today
Definitions
Latitude and Longitude
Earth’s Magnetism
Compass Errors
Projections

4. Headings Heading True Heading Magnetic Heading
The direction in which the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is pointing, measured clockwise from north
True Heading
The direction in which the aircraft nose is pointed, measured clockwise from true north
Magnetic Heading
The direction in which the aircraft nose is pointed, measured clockwise from magnetic north
Variation is used to convert heading or bearing from true to magnetic or vice versa

5. Compass Heading Variation Deviation
The direction that the needle of the compass is pointing
Variation
The angle between a true meridian and a magnetic meridian at any point
Deviation
The angle between magnetic heading and compass heading
Caused by magnetic fields generated by the airframe, engine, and avionics

6. Definitions Direction True and Magnetic Direction Magnetic Dip
Measured in degrees, numbers clockwise from North. North = 0° or 360°, East = 90°, South = 180°, West = 270°
True and Magnetic Direction
Direction measured in degrees true when read directly from a map or in magnetic degrees when variation is considered
Magnetic Dip
Angle between the horizontal plane and the plane of the magnet/compass under the influence of a non-horizontal magnetic line of force
Compass heading: magnetic heading corrected for deviation errors of the compass

7. Definitions Great Circle Rhumb Line
A circle on the surface of the earth whose plane passes through the centre of the earth
It is the shortest distance between any two points on the earth
Rhumb Line
A curved line on the surface of the earth that cuts all of the meridians at the same angle
Equator is the only line on the surface of the Earth that is both a rhumb line and a great circle at the same time!

8. Definitions Isogonals Agonic Line
Lines on a map connecting places of equal variation
Labeled East or West according to position relative to True North
Agonic Line
A line connecting places of zero variation
Two agonic lines; one in North America and one on the opposite side of the Earth
Isogonic and Agonic lines are not straight lines
They bend and twist due to the influence of local perturbations in the local magnetic field due to magnetic bodies below the Earth’s surface

9. More Definitions

10. More Definitions Bearing Nautical Mile: 6080 feet
The position of an object relative to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
Nautical Mile: 6080 feet
The average length of one minute of latitude
Statute Mile: 5280 feet
Kilometre: 3280 feet
1 NM = 1.85 KM
1 NM = 1.15 SM
66NM = 76 SM = 122KM

11. Speed Knots (kts) Miles per Hour (mph) Kilometres per Hour (km/h)
Speed in nautical miles per hour
Miles per Hour (mph)
Speed in statute miles per hour
Kilometres per Hour (km/h)
Speed in kilometres per hour
Speed: the rate of change of position over time compared to an object at rest

12. Speeds Indicated Airspeed (IAS) True Airspeed (TAS) Groundspeed
The airspeed shown on the Airspeed Indicator
True Airspeed (TAS)
Speed of the aircraft relative to the air
Calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility and density
Groundspeed
Speed of the aircraft relative to the ground
Speed = Distance/Time

13. Tracks Track Track Made Good Drift
The intended path of the aircraft over the ground
Track Made Good
The actual path of the aircraft over the ground
Drift
The angle between the heading of the aircraft and the track made good

14. Cardinal Point of the Compass Rose

15.  Heading vs. Bearing A B 000° 090° Aircraft A is on a heading of 000°
The bearing to aircraft B is 090°

16.  Heading vs. Bearing A B 090° 180° Aircraft B is on a heading of 090°
The bearing to aircraft A is 180°

17. Review What is the difference between magnetic and compass heading?
What is a rhumb line?
What is the length of a nautical mile?
Compass heading is magnetic heading corrected for deviation
Curved line on the Earth’s surface which intercepts all meridians at the same angle. A straight line drawn on a Mercator projection. All parallels of latitude are Rhumb lines
1 NM = 6080 feet 1 NM = 1.85 km 1 NM = 1.15 SM 1 NM is the average length of a minute of latitude

18. Latitude, Longitude and the Earth’s Magnetism

19. The Earth
Earth is an oblate spheroid; a sphere flattened at the top and bottom
Surface of the globe is divide into geometrical pattern of intersecting circles called graticule

20. Earth’s Magnetism Earth is a giant magnet
Invisible lines of force link the two poles, creating a magnetic field which encircles the planet
Form magnetic meridians
Lines of force are horizontal, parallel with the Earth’s surface at the equator and more vertical near the poles
Magnetic North and South poles are not located at the same position as the true North and South poles
Position of the magnetic pole changes very slightly from year to year

21. Meridians of Longitude
Semi-great circles that join the geographic poles of the earth
They are measured from 0 to 180 degrees East and West of the Prime Meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England
The meridian opposite the Prime Meridian is called the International Date Line; time changes by a day (180°)

22. Meridians of Longitude
Longitude is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
There are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute

23. Parallels of Latitude
Circles on the earth’s surface which lie parallel to the equator
They are measured from 0 to 90 degrees north and south of the Equator
Latitude is also measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
Each minute of latitude represents 1 NM in distance

24. Geographical Coordinates
The location of any object on the earth’s surface can be expressed by its relation to the lines of latitude and longitude
On most maps, the lines representing the meridians and parallels are numbered, and each tick on these lines represents one minute
The latitude of an object is always given first
i.e. N46° 21’ 10” W72° 40’ 46”

25. Parallel of Latitude
W104° 40’
50° 30’
N50° 26’
Meridian of Longitude

26. Time
The interval of time between the sun passing the same point is called a Solar Day
This solar day is divided into 24 hours
The problem with using this system to measure time is that the sun passes different points on the earth at different times

27. Time and Longitude 24 hrs = 360° longitude 1 hr = 15° longitude
1 min = 15 min longitude
1 sec = 15 sec longitude
360° longitude = 24 hrs
1° longitude = 4 min
1 min longitude = 4 sec
1 sec longitude = 1/15 sec

28. Coordinated Universal Time
To solve the solar day problem, the earth is divided into 24 time zones
These zones are referenced to the time zone with the prime meridian in it
The time in the reference time zone is known as Universal Coordinated time (UTC) or Zulu time
All time zones can be adjusted to match UTC
Winter time is the same as DAYLIGHT SAVINGS TIME

29. Canadian Time Zones Canada is divided into six time zones They are:
Pacific = UTC +8(7)
Mountain = UTC +7(6)
Central = UTC +6(5)
Eastern = UTC +5(4)
Atlantic = UTC +4(3)
Newfoundland = UTC +3:30(2:30)
The numbers indicate how many hours must be added to the local time to get UTC during standard time. The numbers in brackets indicate the hours to be added during daylight savings time.

30. Magnetic Variation True north is the geographical top of the earth
Magnetic north is the direction the compass needle lies; is not a fixed point
Magnetic variation: the angle between a true meridian and the corresponding magnetic meridian (also known as declination)

31. Magnetic Variation EAST IS LEAST WEST IS BEST
The method of calculating magnetic heading from true heading is:
TRUE HEADING + WEST VARIATION = MAGNETIC HEADING
TRUE HEADING - EAST VARIATION = MAGNETIC HEADING
EAST IS LEAST
WEST IS BEST

32. Compass Deviation
Compass deviation: angle between magnetic heading and the compass heading (magnetic heading corrected for deviation)
By using a compass correction card, we can determine the amount of error and add it to the magnetic heading
Swinging the compass:
Effect of deviation is corrected by “swinging the compass”. The aircraft is lined up on each bearing at 30 degree intervals and the compass heading is compared to the real direction. The differences are recorded on the compass correction card mounted in the cockpit as a reference

33. Compass Deviation EAST IS LEAST WEST IS BEST
The method of calculating compass heading from magnetic heading is:
MAGNETIC HEADING + WEST DEVIATION = COMPASS HEADING
MAGNETIC HEADING - EAST DEVIATION = COMPASS HEADING
EAST IS LEAST
WEST IS BEST

34. Variation and Deviation
To remember which order to add or subtract headings, use the acronym
TVMDC
rue
ariation
Two Violinists Make Dull Company
agnetic
eviation
ompass

35. Compass Errors
The magnetic compass is subject to many errors. These include:
Magnetic Dip
The earth’s magnetic lines are parallel to the earth near the equator, but as one nears the magnetic poles, the lines become more vertical
This causes the compass to dip towards the pole and can make it unreadable at high latitudes

36. Compass Errors Northerly Turning Error
When an aircraft banks, so does the compass, and this can cause errors in the turn
On turns from NORTH, the compass LAGS
On turns from SOUTH, the compass LEADS

37. Compass Errors Acceleration Error
When the aircraft accelerates, the compass dips slightly. This can cause it to indicate a turn on east and west headings
Acceleration causes the compass to indicate a turn to the North
Deceleration causes the compass to indicate a turn to the South

38. Review How many meridians of longitude are there? What is a solar day?
What is acceleration error?
24 meridians
Interval of the sun passing the same point
When an aircraft accelerates on an East or West heading, the compass will tend to indicate a turn towards the North

39. The “One-in-Sixty’ Rule
This is a rule that can be used to help determine either how far you are off course or how much of a correction needs to be made to regain your course.
The rule states that
An error in the track of one degree will cause an error in position of about one mile in a distance of 60 miles
1 mile 1°
60 miles

40. The ‘One-in-Sixty Rule’
The One-in-Sixty rule can be expressed as an equation
Where
e = Distance off Track
d = Distance Traveled
θ = Track Error

41. The ‘One-in-Sixty Rule’
For example:
Track Error = 4°, Distance Traveled = 30 miles

42. The ‘One-in-Sixty Rule’
The equation can also be arranged to find Track Error
Distance off track = 3 , Distance Traveled = 45 miles

43. Introduction to Maps

44. Introduction to Maps
The surface of a sphere cannot be accurately projected onto a flat surface, so all maps show the surface of the earth with some degree of distortion
The two types of projections used for aviation maps are
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Mercator Projection

45. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
This projection is created by placing an imaginary cone over the earth, and then projecting the map onto the places where the cone touches the earth
Properties of the LCCP are
Meridians of longitude converge towards the pole
Parallels of latitude are concave towards the nearest pole
Scale is virtually uniform
A straight line is a GREAT CIRCLE
VNC, WAV and HI/LO enroute maps are based on this principle

46. Mercator Projection
This projection is created by placing an imaginary cylinder over the earth so that the only place it’s touching is the equator
Properties of the Mercator Projection are
Meridians of longitude are straight and parallel
Parallels of latitude are straight and parallel
There is no constant scale
A straight line drawn on this map is a rhumb line
Areas in high latitudes are greatly exaggerated
Distances near equator are fairly precise
World map usually uses this principle

47. Transverse Mercator Projection
This projection is created by placing the imaginary cylinder over the earth to touch the earth at only a chosen meridian
Used to cover a very small area
Properties similar to Mercator:
Scale is precise regardless of latitude
Longitude and latitude will appear curved if area coverage is wide enough
Distance is precise along central meridian and throughout the map because the coverage area is so small
Some distortion towards East and West margins of the map
VTA map is based on this principle

48. Basic Elements of Maps All maps are made up of four basic elements
AREAS
SHAPES
BEARINGS
DISTANCES

49. Basic Properties of Maps
All aeronautical maps depict:
Scale
Relief
Isogonic Lines
Communities, roads and railways
Aerodromes
Restricted Areas
Compass Rose
Aeronautical Information
Symbols:
Isogonic lines: shown as dashed line with value printed at regular intervals
Settlements: Towns and villages are yellow squares or circles; cities and large towns are yellow with a black border corresponding to the real shape and size of the settlement
Highways: red or brown line and divided highways are double lines
Railways: black lines with hash marks through it
Aerodromes: small aerodromes are represented by a circle
Larger aerodromes with paved runways are represented in their precise location on the chart by a diagram of their runway layout
Restricted airspace: Circle or shape with hash marks on the inside of the outline
Include alert zones, danger areas, restricted airspace, advisory airspace, altitude reservations and military operation areas
Compass rose: circle divided into 360 degrees printed on chart centered on radio navigation aids (VOR and TACAN) can be used for measuring directions
Aeronautical data: legend explains all symbols and information found on the chart
Aerodrome data: next to the aerodrome symbol is a line leading to a box containing the name of the aerodrome. Under is information about elevation, lighting equipment, longest runway length, zone type and proper frequency
Obstructions: identified by a symbols; usually a tower with elevation in ASL and then (AGL)

50. Scale On aeronautical charts, scale is shown with two methods
Representative Fraction
A fraction showing the size relationship between objects on the ground and objects on the map
I.e. 1:500,000
Graduated Scale
A scale printed on the side of the map that allows measurements on the map to be converted to actual distances (one in KM, one in SM and one in NM)
Scale: relationship between units of distance on the chart to the real distance on the Earth

51. Relief Relief is depicted in four ways on aeronautical charts:
Layer Tinting
Different colours are used to represent areas of different elevation; water is always blue
Contour Lines
Lines joining places of equal elevation on a chart
The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope
Known obstacles or groups of obstacles: elevations are indicated in ASL and AGL in parentheses

52. Relief Shading Spot Heights
Contour Lines
Relief
Layer Tinting
Shading
Shading is added to the sides of hills to give them the appearance of relief
Spot Heights
Points of high elevation are depicted with a dot and the appropriate elevation
The coordinates of the highest point on a chart are printed in the legend
Spot Heights
Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF): a large number found at the centre of each section formed by lines of longitude and latitude.
Represents the highest terrain altitude within that section plus 328 feet/100 meters, or the highest obstacles known (whichever is higher) then rounded up to the next hundred of feet
Highest elevation on a chart:
The position and elevation of the highest point on the chart is found in the border over the layer tinting scale, which is found in the legend of the chart
Shading
MEF

53. Review What is the One-in-sixty rule?
What are the basic elements of maps?
What are the three types of projections?
A track error of 1 degree will result in an error of 1 mile off track in a distance 60 miles
Area Shapes Bearings Distances
Lambert Conic Conformal Projection Mercator Projection Transverse Mercator Projection

54. Types of Aviation Charts

55. VFR Navigation Chart (VNC)
Most commonly used chart for VFR navigation
Used mainly for slower speed aircraft flying at low altitudes
It has a scale of 1:500,000 and uses the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
1 inch = approximately 8 SM
Intended for visual navigation
Chart is printed on both sides
Each chart is designated by the name of its major feature (Toronto, Winnipeg, Montreal...)

56. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC)
Mainly used for visual navigation at high speeds and high altitudes over long distances
Rarely used anymore
It has a scale of 1:1,000,000 and uses the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Intended for visual navigation

57. VFR Terminal Area Chart (VTA)
Used for visual navigation in around airports which are surrounded by Class C airspace
They are printed for 6 airports in Canada (Toronto, Ottawa, etc.)
There scale is 1:250,000 and they use the Transverse Mercator Projection
VTA border are drawn on VNC maps to help the pilot identify where they are located and when he needs to refer to them
Contains calling in points and VFR standard procedure inside its boundary

58. Low and High Enroute Charts
Low and high enroute charts (LO and HI) are used for IFR navigation
They depict very little ground detail, but depict a very detailed picture of the IFR airspace system
Scale is not constant between charts
Provide necessary information for radio navigation using the established airways
Designed for IFR use
Do not show cities, towns or geographic features (except major ones)
Show radio-navigation aids, IFR checkpoints, radio frequencies, etc.

59. TC-AIM Transport Canada Aeronautical Information Manual (TC-AIM)
Single source of information on rules of the air and other CARs
Subscription available for all pilots or free online at ons/tp14371/menu.htm
Developed to consolidate pre-flight reference information into a single primary document
Provides crews with single source for information concerning rules of the air and procedures for aircraft operation in CARs of interest to pilots
CARs-Canadian Aviation Regulations
TC-AIM has no legal value and juridical questions must be referred directly to CARs
Updates are published twice a year in April and October. Pilot’s responsibility to ensure document is up to date.
Subscriptions available, copies may be purchased from Transport Canada or available for free online.

60. Canada Flight Supplement
Lists and provides information about all land aerodromes in Canada
Is updated every 56 days
Also provides information about preferred IFR routing, intercept orders, obstructions and other miscellaneous aeronautical data
Indicates diagram of aerodrome, layout of runways, placement of buildings and control tower, alphanumeric code of the aerodrome, geographic co-ordinates, magnetic variation, local time conversions, elevation of aerodrome, radio frequencies, services offered and various other information
Joint civil/military publication
Information on land and some water aerodromes and used as a reference for planning and safe conduct of air operations
Typically only provides information on aerodromes that:
-are open to the public
-used by more than one aircraft
-telephone available to aerodrome users
Information is only current to the date of submission for printing
NOTAMs amend or cancel the information in this document and must therefore be consulted to ensure that current information is sued for flight operation

61. Flight Planning Adequate and current aviation maps
Carefully prepared navigation
Flight plan or flight itinerary filed
Weather information
NOTAMs
Aircraft performance numbers
Calculate weight and balance
Perform complete passenger and crew briefing
Flight time: Time calculated from the moment the aircraft begins to move under its own power with the intention of taking off until the moment that the aircraft comes to a stop at the end of the flight.
Pre-flight inspection:
Pre-flight inspections must be performed in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual, checklists and school procedures before each flight. Verify the validity and conformity of documents carried on board with the requirements before flight and carry them on board.
Weight and Balance:
A weight and balance calculation using the graphs and tables in the POH must be carried out to ensure that the centre of gravity is within permissible limits and to determine if the aircraft is adequately loaded in accordance with the principles of FLIGHT SAFETY.

62. Review What is a great circle?
What are the types of charts used in aviation?
What can you find in the CFS?
Circle on the surface of the Earth whose plane passes through the centre of the Earth and cuts it into equal parts
VNC VTA WAC HI/LO enroute
Aerodrome name and identifier, elevation Runway orientation, length, composition Building and tower locations Frequencies Radio navigation facilities Lighting equipment Other aerodrome characteristics and facilities

63. Summary Topics covered today: Next class will be airmanship and radios
Definitions
Latitude and Longitude
Earth’s Magnetism
Compass Errors
Projections
Next class will be airmanship and radios