1. SCHOOL OF DENTAL MEDICINE ENGLISH IN DENTAL MEDICINE I
UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB
Lidija Štefić
ENGLISH IN DENTAL MEDICINE I

2. WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH
DERIVATION
CONVERSION
COMPOUNDING
BORROWING

3. DERIVATION AFFIXATION AFFIXES SUFFIXES COMBINING WORD PREFIXES
ROOT (STEM)

4. BASIC WORD STRUCTURE Word root: gingiv/al root (gums) Suffix:
gingiv/itis
suffix (inflammation)
Prefix::
sub/gingiv/al
prefix (below)
Combining word::
electr/o/cardi/o/gram
root
suffix
prefix
combining vowel

5. SUFFIXES IN DENTAL MEDICINE
a word added at the end of a word or word base (root)
to change its meaning.
DERIVE FROM
Greek
Latin

6. NEW TERM USED IN DENTISTRY OR MEDICINE gingiv + -itis gingivitis arthr WR
SUFFIX
NEW TERM USED IN DENTISTRY OR MEDICINE
gingiv
+ -itis
gingivitis
arthr
+ -algia
arthralgia WR +O
SUFFIX
NEW TERM USED IN DENTISTRY OR MEDICINE
pulp
+ -tomy
pulpotomy

7. SURGICAL PROCEDURE SUFFIXES
Incision
-ectomy (surgical removal, excision)
apiectomy -
the ablation of the root end of a tooth
-o/centesis (surgical puncture)
amniocentesis -
surgical perforation of the uterus to obtain amniotic fluid
-o/stomy (forming an opening)
esophagostomy -
the surgical creation of an opening into the esophagus
-o/tome (instrument to cut)
osteotome -
a chisel like knife for cutting bone
-o/tomy (to cut into)
tracheotomy -
incision of windpipe

8. Plastic operations (repair, rebulid, reconstruct, bind)
-desis
arthrodesis - surgical fixation of a joint
-o/rrhaphy (suture)
splenorrhaphy - surgical repair of the spleen
-o/pexy (fixation, suspension)
splenopexy - surgical fixation of a mobile spleen
-o/plasty (formation, plastic
repair)
osteoplasty - plastic surgery involving a bone

9. Refracturing, loosening, crushing
-o/clasis (to break down, refracture)
osetoclasis - the surgical fracture or refracture of bones
-o/lysis (loosen, free form adhesions,
destruction)
enterolysis - the operative division of adhesions between loops of intenstine of or between the intestine and
abdominal wall
-o/tripsy (to crush)
neurotripsy - surgical crushing of a nerve

10. DIAGNOSTIC AND SYMPTOMATIC SUFFIXES
-algia (pain)
odontalgia -
toothache
-o/cele (hernia, swelling)
nephrocele -
hernial protrusion of a kidney
-o/dynia (pain)
odontodynia -
-ectasis (dilatation, expansion)
bronchiectasis -
chronic dilatation of the bronchi
-emia (blood condition)
hyperemia -
an excess of blood in a body part
-o/gen (beginning, origin)
pathogen -any disease - producing microorganism

11. -o/gram (a writing, record)
roentgenogram -
a photograph taken with the x-rays
-o/graph (to write, record)
cardiograph -
a technique by means of which roentgenograms of the heart can be made at any chosen phase of its cycle.
-iasis (condition, formation of, presence of)
psoriasis -
a chronic skin disease characterized by scaly red dish patches
-sis (state of, condition)
dysgenesis -
state of deterioration of hereditary qualites of the stock

12. -itis (inflammation)
stomatitis -
a general inflammation of the mouth
-o/logy (study of)
odontology -
the study of the teeth
-o/malacia (softening)
osteomalacia -
a condition marked by softening of the bones
-o/megaly (enlargement)
acromegaly -
enlargement of the extremities of the skeleton, the nose, jaws fingers and toes
-o/meter (measure)
dynamometer -
an instrument for measuring forces or power

13. -opsy (process of viewing) autopsy -
-oma (tumor, mass)
odontoma -
tumor of a tooth, although it doesn’t show all the features of a tumor. It consists of the calicified dental tissues
-opsy (process of viewing)
autopsy -
an examination and dissection of a dead body to discover the cause of death, damage done by disease.
-o/pathy (disease)
trombocytopathy -
a very rare disease of unknown etiology where there is a tendency to bleeding.
-o/penia (decrease, deficiency)
leukocytopenia -
deficiency in the number of leukocytes

14. -osis (abnormal condition, increase-used only with blood cells) e. g
-osis (abnormal condition, increase-used only with blood cells) e.g. leukocytosis
sialosis -
chronic swelling of the salivary glands
-phagia (eating)
dysphagia -
difficulty in swallowing
-phasia (speech)
dysphasia -
impairment of the ability to speak
-plegia (paralysis, stroke)
paraplegia -
paralysis of the legs and lower part of the body

15. -phobia (morbid fear)
aerophobia -
an abnormal fear of air, especially drafts
-o/ptosis
metroptosis -
downward displacement or prolapse of the
uterus
-o/rrhage (burst forth)
hemorrhage -
excessive blood flow
-o/rrhea (discharge, flow)
dysmenorrhea -
painful or difficult menstruation
-o/clerosis (hardening)
arteriosclerosis -
thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls
-scope (instrument to visually examine)
endoscope -
an instrument for examining visually the inside of a hollow organ of the body, as the bladder or rectum

16. SUFFIXES: ADJECTIVE ENDINGS
The adjective endings that mean “pertaining to” are:
-ac
cardiac (heart)
-al
gingival (gums)
-ar, -ary
salivary (saliva)
-ic
dermic (skin)
-ical
apical (apex)
-ous
mucous (mucosa)
-(t)ic
lymphatic (lymph)

17. SUFFIXES: NOUN ENDINGS
-coccus
bacteria
streptococcus (berry shaped bacteria)
-cyte
cell
thrombocyte
-ole
little, small
arteriole - little artery
-trophy
hypertrophy (cells increase in size, not
number)
-ule
nodule - little node
-ist
specialist
dentist - a specialist in dentistry
-iac
an individual affected by a certain disase
hypohondriac - an invidual who thinks
he is ill
-ia
abnormal condition
amnesia - forgetfulness
-is
forms the noun from the root
cutis - skin
-ism
abnormal condition, state of being
alcoholism

18. PREFIXES IN DENTAL MEDICINE
at the beginning of a word
DERIVE FROM
Greek
Latin

19. PREFIXES OF DIRECTION Prefix Meaning Example ab- from,away from
ab/normal
usual, regular
ad-
to, toward, near
ad/sternal
breast plate
circum –
peri-
around
circum/renal
kidney
peri/odontal
tooth

20. Prefix
Meaning
Example
ec-
ex-
through, across
ec/tropia
place
ex/cision
to cut
ecto-
exo-
extra-
outside
ecto/derm
skin
ex/odontics
tooth
extra/cellular
cell

21. Prefix
Meaning
Example
endo-
Intra-
in, within
endo/cranial
skull
intra/dental
tooth
par-
para-
near, beside,beyond
para/nasal
nose
super-
supra-
above
excessive
super/acidity
acidity
supra/molecular
molecule

22. Prefix
Meaning
Example
ultra-
beyond,excesive
ultra/sonic
sound
dia-
per-
trans-
trough, across
dia/rea
flow
per/cutaneos
skin
trans/urethral
urethra

23. PREFIXES OF POSITION Prefix Meaning Example ambi- both,both sides
ambi/lateral
side
amphi-
on both sides
amphi/cranial
skull
ante-
anter/o-
pre-
pro-
before, in front of
ante/febrile
antero/septal
Septum
pre/operative
Operation
pro/nephros
kidney

24. Prefix
Meaning
Example
dextr/o-
right, to the right
dextr/o/rotatory
rotation
dors/o-
back
dors/o/ventral
belly
epi-
upon
epi/cranial
skull
hypo-
under below
hypo/dermic
skin
infra-
sub-
beneath, under
infra/sonic
sound
sub/lingual
tongue

25. Prefix
Meaning
Example
inter-
between
inter/dental
tooth
later/o-
to the side of
latero/abdominal
stomach
mes/o-
medi-
in the middle of
mes/o/dermic
skin
retro-
post-
after,backward
retro/cervical
cervix(neck)
postero-
located, behind
postero/lateral
To the side of
sinistr/o-
left,to the left of
sinistr/o/dextral
to the right

26. PREFIXES OF NUMBER AND MEASUREMENT
Meaning
Example
micro-
small
micro/stomatous
mouth
macro-
large
macro/cyst
hyper-
over,above,excessive
hyper/sensitivity
hypo-
under,below,deficient
hypo/glossal
tongue
primi-
first
primi/para
to bear off spring

27. Prefix
Meaning
Example
uni-
mono-
one
uni/lateral
side
mono/nucleus
kernel
bi-
di-
two
bi/lateral
di/phy/odont
leaf, tooth
hemi-
half
hemi/plegia
paralysis
semi-
partial
semi/lunar
moon

28. Prefix
Meaning
Example
multi-
poly-
many
multi/lateral
side
poly/phobia
fear
tri-
three
tri/cephalus
head
quadri-
four
quadry/plegia
paralysis

29. PREFIXES OF COLOUR Prefix Meaning Example alb- albumino- leuc/o-
leuk/o-
white
albin/ous
contain
leuc/emia
blood condition
chlor/o-
green
chlor/emija
glauc/o-
poli/o-
grey
glauc/oma
swelling
polio/myel/itis

30. Prefix Meaning Example
cirrh/o-
xanth/o-
yellow
cirrh/osis
abnormal condition
xanth/emia
cyan/o-
blue
cyan/o/dermia
skin
melan/o-
black
melan/oma
tumor, mass
erythr/o-
rube/o-
red
erythr/o/cyte
cell
rube/osis
purpur/o-
purple
purpur/ic
pertaining to

31. (used before a consonant)
PREFIXES OF NEGATION
Prefix
Meaning
Example
a –
(used before a consonant)
an-
(used before a vowel)
without, not, a lack of
a/pnea
breath
ar-
im-
in-
dis-
not
ar/rhythmia
rhythm
im/mature
in/somni/ac
sleep
dis/functional

32. MISCELLANEOUS PREFIXES
Meaning
Example
anti-
contra-
against
anti/bacterial
Bacteria
contra/ception
fertilization
brady-
slow
brady/cardia
heart
tachy-
rapid
tachy/cardia
dys-
Bad,paniful,difficult
Dys/phagia
swallowing

33. Prefix Meaning Example
eu-
good, easy
eu/pnea
breathing
heter/o-
different
heter/o/cellular
cell
homo-
same
homo/sexual
sex
hydro-
water
hydr/o/cephalus
head
mal-
ill, bad, poor
mal/nutrition
food substances
meta-
after,over,change
meta/plasia
abnormal (change)

34. Prefix Meaning Example
pan-
all
pan/hyster/ectomy
uterus/removal
pseudo-
false
pseudo/mening/itis
meninges inflammation
scler/o-
hard
scler/osis
condition of
sym-
syn-
union, together
sym/podia
foot
syn/chilia
lips

35. COMBINING FORMS Combining form Meaning Terminology cyt/o all cytology
cephal/o
head
cephalic
-ic means pertaining to
physi/o
nature
physiology
study of functions of the
living organism
hem/o
blood
hematoma
-oma means tumor or mass

36. crin/o
to secrete
endocrine glands
endo-means within
derm/o
skin
hypodermic
hypo-means below, under
gingiv/o
gums
gingivitis
-itis means inflammation
cerebr/o
brain
cerebrum
cerebral
-al means pertaining to
gen/o
producing
produced by
pathogenic
patho-means disease

37. gnos/o
knowledge
diagnosis
-dia-means complete;
-sis means state of. A diagnosis is made after sufficient information has been obtained about the patient’s condition
cardi/o
heart
cardiology
sarco/o
flesh
sarcoma
path/o
disease
pathological
orth/o
straight, regular, correct
orthodontist
odont means tooth
-ist means a specialist
bi/o
life
biopsy
-opsy means process of viewing
oste/o
bone
osteodynia
-dynia means pain

38. ANATOMY
Anatomy (from the Greek ἀνατομία anatomia, from ἀνατέμνειν ana:
separate, apart from, and temnein, to cut up, cut open)
is a branch of biology
It is the study of exernal and internal structures
and the physical realationships
between body parts
Microscopic
-cytology
-histology
Macroscopic (gross)
-surface
-regional
systemic

39. Claudius Aelius Galenus
HYSTORY OF ANATOMY
Hippocrates of Kos (Greek: Ἱπποκράτης)
Claudius Aelius Galenus
(AD 129 – 200)
ca. 460 BC - ca. 370 BC

40. Canon of Medicine
Ibn al-Nafis
1484

41. Anatomy Lesson of dr.Nicolaes Tulp
Leonardo da Vinci
Anatomy Lesson of dr.Nicolaes Tulp
1632
Rembrandt

42. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

43. Robert Hooke’s microscope
The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

44. Anatomy employs two chief methods of study - the systemic and
topographic.In the former the body is regarded as consisting of systems
and organs.
The divisions of systemic anatomy are: a.
Osteology, the description of the skeleton b.
Arthrology, the description of the joints c.
Myology, the description of muscles and accessory structures d.
Splancnology, the description of viscera e.
Angiology, the description of organs of circulation f.
Neurology, the description of the nervous system g.
Esthesiology, the description of the sense organs

45. Dental medicine takes into consideration other branches of systemic
anatomy such as : embriology, genetics, endocrinology and dermatology.
Pathological anatomy is the study of diseased organs.
sections of normal anatomy applied to various purposes receive
special names such as
medical, surgical, ginaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy

46. Structural Organisation of the Body
Organs, Systems
Body Cavities

47. Organs and Systems Tissues  Patterns  Various Organs
Organs = several kinds of tissue
viscera (lat.) = internal organs (sing. viscus)
Systems = groups of organs working together and performing complex functions

48. Gastrointestinal System
Mouth, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach,
intestines
(small and large),
liver, gallbladder, pancreas

49. Excretory System
Kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder,
urethra

50. Respiratory System Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial
tubes, lungs

51. Reproductive System Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands

52. Reproductive System Male: testes and associated tubes, urethra, penis,
prostate gland

53. Endocrine System Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, sex glands,
adrenal glands,
pancreas,
parathyroid glands,
pineal gland, thymus gland

54. Nervous System
Brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and collection
of nerves

55. Cardiovascular System
Heart, blood vessels
(arteries, veins and
capillaries),
lymphatic vessels
and nodes,
spleen, thymus gland

56. Muscular System
Muscles

57. Skeletal System
Bones and joints
(articulations)

58. Integumentary System Skin, hair, nails and associated glands
(sweat or sudoriferous
and sebaceous
or oil glands)

59. Body Cavities Body cavity = space within the body containing the
internal organs (viscera).

60. Cranial Cavity
Brain

61. Thoracic Cavity Subdivided into: -Pleural Cavities:
area surrounding the lungs
-The Mediastinum: area between the lungs; contains heart, aorta, trachea, oesophagus, and thymus gland

62. Abdominal Cavity Stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas,
kidneys
Surrounded by
peritoneum

63. Pelvic Cavity Urinary bladder, urethra, ureters; uterus and vagina
in the female

64. Spinal Cavity
Spinal cord and
nerves of the spinal
cord

65. Glossary tissue = tkivo cavity = šupljina gallbladder = žučni mjehur
pancreas = gušterača
spleen = slezena
thymus gland = prsna žlijezda
thyroid gland = štitnjača

66. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
BONES
JOINTS
MUSCLES

67. BONES

68. Bones are complete organs, composed
of connective tissue called osseous tissue
Dense connective tissue includes the
cartilage and bone
It consists of osteocytes surrounded by
intercellular substance filled with
calcium salts

69. It is composed of an outer hard layer and an inner,spongy core.
Compact tissue- forms the outer layer of bones, it is arranged in concentric layers with a hollow centre which carries blood vessels and nerves.

70. The inner spongy core- forms the inside of bones, it has the yellow and red bone marrow.
- the yellow bone marrow stores fat cells (leucocytes).
- the red bone marrow contains red cells (erythrocytes).

71. External surface of bone is covered by
periosteum- it has the function
of feeding the bone

72. Several hormones regulate the activity of the bone cell
Osteoblasts- they are immature
osteocytes which produce the bony tissue
that replaces cartilage during ossification

73. 2) Osteoclasts- they reabsorb bony tissue thus enlarging the inner bone cavity so that the bone does not become overly thick and heavy
- parathyroid gland stimulates osteoclasts to remove bone and to stimulate osteoblasts to build up the bone

74. It secretes a hormone to release
calcium from bone, bones become weakened
due to loss of calcium.

75. CRANIAL BONES
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
Sphenoid
Ethmoid

76. FACIAL BONES
Nasal
Lacrimal
Maxillary
Mandibular
Zygomatic
Vomer

77. The Mandible

78. The Maxilla

79. The Palate

80. JOINTS SYNARTHROSES DIARTHROSES
junctions (meeting places called articulations)
between two or more bones.
SYNARTHROSES
DIARTHROSES

81. TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT (TMJ)

82. FOUR MOVEMENTS OF TMJ:
Elevation
Depression
Protraction
Retraction

83. MUSCLES from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse"
Myology is the branch of anatomy dealing with the muscles,
muscular tissue components, structure and functions.
Striated - Voluntary
Smooth - Involuntary
Cardiac

84. MASTICATORY MUSCLES Temporal Muscle Masseter Muscle Lateral (External)
Pterygoid Muscle
Digastric Muscle
(Anterior Portion)

85. Temporal Muscle

86. Masseter Muscle

87. Lateral (External) Pterygoid Muscle

88. Digastric Muscle (Anterior Portion)

89. FACIAL MUSCLES Orbicularis oris – the sphincter of the mouth
The buccinator
- a deep muscle of the cheek

90. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

91. NERVE TISSUE Neuroglia Neurons Neuron Dendrite Nucleus Axon Soma
Myelin sheath
Schwann cell
Axon Terminal
Node of
Ranvier

92. synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons
Greek "syn-" ("together") and "haptein" ("to clasp").
synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons
signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands.

93. THE BRAIN

94. CRANIAL NERVES
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.   Olfactory I   Optic II   Oculomotor III   Trochlear IV   Trigeminal V   Abducens VI   Facial VII   Auditory (vestibulocochlear) VIII   Glossopharyngeal IX   Vagus X   Spinal Accessory XI   Hypoglossal XII

95. THE CIRCULATORY AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

96. BLOOD AND OTHER BODY FLUIDS
Fluids constitute over
half of an adult’s weight
under normal conditions
These fluids are vital
in the transport of
nutrients to all cells

97. Blood is composed of:
liquid (plasma) – 55%
formed elements ( erythrocytes,
leukocytes and platelets) – 45 %

98. Plasma consists of about:
- 90% of water
7% proteins
less than 1%
inorganic salts,
organic substances, dissolved gases,
hormones, antibodies
and enzymes

99. Many important proteins
such as serum, albumin,
gamma globulin and
fibrinogen are dissolved
in the plasma

100. Fibrinogen is essential in the clotting process

101. All blood cells originate from hemocytoblasts
They change from undifferentiated form into
specialized or differentiated
Hematopoiesis: :

102. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to
the body tissues, and carbon dioxide
from the tissues to the lungs:

104. Erythrocytes The great majority of all blood cells 35 trillion in the
average adult
Total surface area almost
the size of a football field

105. Hemoglobin enables carrying oxygen from the
lungs to the tissues

106. Red blood cells are
stored in the spleen
They live for about
110 to 120 days
About 180 million
erythrocytes are
destroyed every
minute

107. Leukocytes Body’s primary defense against Infections
These cells are larger
than erythrocytes and
fewer in number
Blood has about 8000
leukocytes per cubic
millimeter

108. Classification of leukocytes
Granulocytes ( neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)
2. Agranulocytes (monocytes, lynphocytes)

109. Neutrophils form
about 70%, and
limphocytes about
20% of the total
number

110. Platelets (thrombocytes)
Small clear disk-shaped bodies
About 1/3 the size of erythrocytes
25000 platelets per one cubic millimeter of blood
They initiate blood clotting

111. Platelets disintegrate
and adhere to the
edges of the injured
tissue

112. Blood coagulation (clotting)
The process by which the body
prevents blood loss
Bleeding generally stops within
5 minutes
A thrombus can form
within a vessel

113. Defects in blood vessels (owing to injury or disease)
Anemia
Neutropenia
Human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV)
Leukimia
Thrombocytopenia
Hemophilia

114. BLOOD TRANSFUSION
BLOOD GROUPS

115. Four main blood groups
Type O = universal donors Type AB = universal recipients

117. Rhesus factor - Rh
Another important factor, called Rh factor must also be considered in blood typing. This is a very complex system : 8 principal variants of the Rh factor are known, and there are others not yet identified and grouped. For practical reasons there are 2 main groups of Rh types:
Rh positive
Rh negative

119. Blood diseases Blood parasites Christmas disease Hemophilia Malaria
Septicemia
Vitamin K deficiency
Hemoglobin C,S,E disease

120. Vitamin K deficiency

121. Anemia

122. Malaria

125. Hemophilia

126. THE CIRCULATORY AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

127. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The cardiovascular system is composed of the
heart, blood vessels and blood. The circulatory
system consists of the heart, blood vessels and
lymphatics. This system transports food,
oxygen, and other vital substances to all body
cells and picks up waste products for disposal.

128. THE HEART The heart is a hollow, muscular organ that
pumps blood through the blood vessels. It is
enclosed in a fibrouserous sac called
pericardium. The heart beats over
times per day. It weights about one half pound
and is the size of clenched fist

129. The heart has three distinctive layers of tissue:
The endocardium
The myocardium
The epicardium
The heart is divided into four chambers:
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle

130. BLOOD VESSELS ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES
carry blood from the heart to the body tissues and organs
VEINS
carry blood back to the heart from body organs and tissues
CAPILLARIES
connect arterioles to venules.

131. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Lymph fluid Capillaries Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic ducts
Lymph nodes

132. FUNCTION Transporting fluids from tissues back to the bloodstream
Aiding in the control of infection caused by microorganisms
Conveyance of lipids or fats away from the digestive organs

133. Lymph nodes of the human head and neck
Regional lymph tissue

134. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system is
basically a long, muscular
tube that begins at the
mouth and ends at the anus

135. The functions of the
digestive system are
threefold

136. Digestive enzymes are substances that speed up
chemical reactions and help in the breakdown of
complex nutrients
Digestion can be defined as a complete process of
changing the chemical and physical composition of food
in order to facilitate assimilations of the nourishing
ingredients of flood by the cells of the body

137. The gastrointestinial (GI) tract begins at the oral cavity or mouth

138. THE MOUTH The mouth is the first division of the digestive tube
and is separable into two parts, smaller external
part, the vestibule formed by the lips cheek, gums
and teeth and a larger part, the mouth proper (oral)
cavity behind the gums and teeth

139. Lips and cheeks Lips are a visible body part at the mouth of humans
and many animals.
Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food
intake , and in the articulation of speech,
as a tactile sensory organ as an erogenous organ used
in kissing and other acts of intimacy.

140. Cheeks (Latin: buccae) constitute the area of the
face below the eyes and between the nose
and the left or right ear.

141. Gums and teeth

142. Gingiva are part of the soft tissue lining of the mouth.
They surround the teeth and provide a seal around them.
Compared with the soft tissue linings of the lips and cheeks,
most of the gingiva are tightly bound to the underlying bone
and are designed to resist the friction of food passing
over them. Healthy gingiva is usually coral pink,
but may contain physiologic pigmentation.
Changes in color, particularly increased redness,
together with edema and an increased tendency to bleed,
suggest an inflammation (gingivitis)

143. Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures
found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates
that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food
Humans usually have 20 primary teeth
(also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth)
and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth,
10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other
10 in the (lower) mandible.
Teeth are classified as incisors, canines,premolars
and molars .

144. The main functions of the teeth:
Incisors = cutting
Canines = tearing
Premolars = crushing
Molars = grinding

145. The tongue The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the
mouth that manipulates food for
chewing and swallowing (deglutition).

146. The main functions of the tongue:
It moves food around in the mouth
It begins swallowing action (deglutition)
It aids in speech production
It provides the equipment for taste sensation