1. OBJECTS of WEALTH and RITUAL: GOTHIC ART
(Gothic Luxury Arts)

2. GOTHIC LUXURY ARTS Online Links: Virgin of Paris – Wikipedia
Virgin of Paris - Notre Dame of Paris
Moralized Bible of Blanche of Castille and Louis IX of France – Smarthistory
Casket with Scenes of Romances - Walters Art Museum
Casket with Scenes of Romanes – Wikipedia
Unicorn Tapestries - Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Tapestries at the Cloisters
Sacred Texts: Golden Haggadah - British Museum

3. Virgin of Paris. Notre-Dame, Paris, early 14th century
In the sanctuary, leaning against the south east pillar of the transept, flowers which remain white honor a Virgin with Child dedicated to “Notre-Dame de Paris” Ever since the cathedral was first founded in the 12th century, an altar dedicated to the Virgin has stood on this spot.
This statue is the most well known of the thirty-seven representations of the Virgin housed by the cathedral. Sculpted in the middle of the 14th century, it comes from the Chapel of Saint Aignan in the ancient Cloister of the Canons on the Île de la Cité. After being transferred to Notre-Dame in 1818, it was first of all placed on the trumeau of the Portal of the Virgin, to replace the 13th century Virgin knocked down in 1793.

4. This Virgin of Paris in Notre-Dame Cathedral consists largely of hollows, and the projections have been reduced to the point where they are seen as lines rather than volumes. The statue is quite literally disembodied- its swaying stance no longer bears any resemblance to classical contrapposto.
The new style was certainly encouraged by the royal court of France and thus had special authority. However, smoothly flowing, calligraphic lines came to dominate Gothic art, not just in France but throughout northern Europe from about 1250 to It is clear, moreover, that the style of The Virgin of Paris represents neither a return to the Romanesque nor a complete rejection of the earlier realistic trend. On the other hand, an intimate type of realism survives even within the formal framework of The Virgin of Paris. We see it in the Infant Christ, who appears here not as the Savior-in-miniature facing the viewer, but as a human child playing with his mother’s veil.

5. The sculptor portrayed Mary as a very worldly queen, decked out in royal garments and wearing a gem-encrusted crown. The Christ Child is equally richly attired and is very much the infant prince in the arms of his young mother. The tender, anecdotal characterization of mother and son represents a further humanization of the portrayal of religious figures in Gothic sculpture.
The exaggerated swaying S curve of the Virgin’s body superficially resembles the shallow S curve Praxiteles introduced in the fourth century BCE. But unlike its Late Classical predecessor, the Late Gothic S curve was not organic (derived from within figures), nor was it a rational, if pleasing, organization of human anatomical parts. Rather, the Gothic curve was an artificial form imposed on figures, a decorative device that produced the desired effect of elegance but that had nothing to do with figure structure.
Tansey, Richard G. and Fred S. Kleiner. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 10th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers, 1996.

6. Earlier medieval cults ascribed bodily movement, bodily emissions (weeping, lactating), and other miraculous occurrences, to statues which we would today regard as anything but lifelike representations; specific statues were occasionally ascribed specific healing powers, thus engendering local loyalties. It follows that the process of devotional empathy could be enhanced by a certain particularity of representation, as in the use of real materials (cloth for draperies, jewels, crowns of real thorns) in statues.
As the Middle Ages progressed, an interest in the emotional attitude of the believer viewing the images seemed to increase. The early basis for this development may be found in the psychology of human sight promulgated by Saint Augustine ( ), the bishop of Hippo in North Africa, one of the Four Fathers of the early Western church. Augustine described three stages of sight: corporeal, spiritual, and intellectual. Corporeal sight is seeing with the eyes; spiritual vision is recollecting things not present or imagining them from verbal or written description; and intellectual vision is perceiving abstractions, such as Virtue or the Trinity. This tripartition may be considered essential to the medieval concept of prayer and devotion.
Flynn, Tom. The Body in Three Dimensions. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.

7. Virgin of Jeanne d’Evereux (from the abbey church of St
Virgin of Jeanne d’Evereux (from the abbey church of St. Denis), 1339, silver gilt and enamel
Some believe that the rise of the Cult of the Virgin was an off-shoot of the Gregorian reforms of the 11the century. Although cult of the Virgin may seem to represent something of a course correction in restoring respect for women, the Gothic version of the cult went to the other extreme: putting the ideal of "Woman" (if not actual women themselves) on a high and unapproachable pedestal.
This is a silver gilt and enamel statuette made in 1339 and donated to the royal abbey church of St. Denis by Jeanne d’Evreux, the wife and queen of Charles IV of France.

8. Royal families often purchased luxury figurines and statues for churches. The Virgin and Child statuette stands on an enameled rectangular base, and depicts scenes of Christ's Passion. The base rests on four tiny lions, one on each corner. Surrounding the base are niches that frame the scenes. Within the niches are small statuettes of prophets.
Her facial expression shows no sign of grief or worry. Neither does the Christ child in her arms. Gracefully reaching for his mother's face, he looks into her eyes. He is portrayed as an ordinary innocent child.
Mary holds a scepter in the form of a fleur-de-lis (the emblem of the French monarchy) in her right hand. Some believed the scepter contained hair from Mary herself.

9. Sight, c. 1500, French tapestry of wool and silk

10. The celebration of the role played by sight in love, in which the mirror loses its negative association with vanity, occurs in a tapestry representing ‘Sight’ from the Five Senses Tapestries that were made for a member of the le Viste family of Lyons at the end of the fifteenth century.
Though few have survived into the present, tapestries like these were the most sought-after, expensive, and important of the Gothic luxury arts in the later Middle Ages in northern Europe.
They were carried from castle to castle, providing warm hangings against draughts and a sumptuous setting for court spectacles.

11. Most tapestries, like this one, came in sequences that could create a theme for a room, transforming bare walls into an exotic setting or, as with le Viste’s series (sometimes called ‘La Dame a la Licorne’), a space for erotic experience.
The pictorial language of love, its complex heraldic symbolism, and its playful allusion is played out to perfection in this series of tapestries, made as an engagement present in which the patron could present his future betrothed with an art of love based on his future expectations of sensuous pleasure.

12. The lover, Viste himself, is not present as a person in the tapestries, but in each of them he is represented by his heraldic emblems, the lion and the unicorn, (the latter renowned for its vistesse, or swiftness, in old French, and thus a family emblem for the Vistes).
Only a beautiful lady, according to the traditional bestiary story, could tame this enigmatic animal.
In the Sight tapestry, the lady herself does not look in the mirror, but makes the unicorn, playing like a pet in her lap, admire his own reflection.

13. The Unicorn in Captivity, c. 1500, tapestry
This tapestry may have been created as a single image rather than part of a series. In this instance, the unicorn probably represents the beloved tamed. He is tethered to a tree and constrained by a fence, but the chain is not secure and the fence is low enough to leap over. The unicorn could escape if he wished but clearly his confinement is a happy one, to which the ripe, seed-laden pomegranates in the tree—a medieval symbol of fertility and marriage—testify.
The red stains on his flank do not appear to be blood, as there are no visible wounds like those in the hunting series; rather, they represent juice dripping from the bursting pomegranates above. Many of the other plants represented here, such as wild orchid, bistort, and thistle, echo this theme of marriage and procreation: they were acclaimed in the Middle Ages as fertility aids for both men and women. Even the little frog, nestled among the violets at the lower right, was cited by medieval writers for its noisy mating.

14. The ideal of courtly love arose in southern France in the early twelfth century during the cultural renaissance that followed the First Crusade. It involved the passionate devotion of lover and loved one. The relationship was almost always illicit- the woman the wife of another, often a lord or patron- and its consummation was usually impossible.
This movement transformed the social habits of western Europe’s courts and has had an enduring influence on modern ideas of love. Images of gallant knights serving refined ladies, who bestowed tokens of affection on their chosen suitors or cruelly withheld their love on a whim, captured the popular imagination.
Courtly vignettes on an ivory mirror-case, first third of the 14th century

15. The literature of courtly love was initially spread by the musician-poets known as troubadours, some of them professionals, some of them amateur nobles, and at least twenty of them women. They sang of love’s joys and heartbreaks in daringly personalized terms, extolling the ennobling effects of the lovers’ selfless devotion.

16. For all her legal disabilities, the lady played a serious, sometimes leading role in the life of the castle. When the lord was away at court, war, Crusade, or pilgrimage, she ran the estate, directing the staff and making the financial and legal decisions.
The ease with which castle ladies took over such functions indicates a familiarity implying at least a degree of partnership when the lord was at home. Besides helping to supervise the household staff and the ladies who acted as nurses for her children, the lord’s wife took charge of the reception and entertainment of officials, knights, prelates, and other castle visitors.
Warfare imagery: the Siege of the Castle of Love on an ivory mirror-back, possibly Paris, ca. 1350–1370

17. Abraham and the three angels, from the Psalter of Saint Louis (Paris) , ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum
The Psalter of St. Louis (the king was canonized in 1297) defines the Court style in manuscript illumination. The book, containing seventy-eight full-page illuminations, was created for Louis IX’s private devotions sometimes between 1253 and The illustrations fall at the back of the book, preceded by Psalms and other readings unrelated to them.
Intricate scrolled borders and a background of Rayonnant architectural features modeled on the Sainte-Chapelle frame the narratives. Figures are rendered in an elongated, linear style of the court style.

18. This folio (page) illustrates two scenes from the Old Testament story of Abraham, Sarah, and the Three Strangers (Genesis 18). On the left, Abraham greets God, who has appeared to him as three strangers, and invites him to rest. On the right, he offers the men a meal that his wife, Sarah, standing in the doorway of their tent on the far right, has prepared.
The gesture of the central haloed figure in the scene on the right and Sarah’s presence in the doorway of the tent indicate that we are viewing the moment of divine promise. This new spatial sense, as well as the depicting of oak leaves and acorns, reflects a tentative move toward the representation of the natural world that will gain momentum in the following centuries.

19. King David looks down upon Bathsheba bathing and up to God, from the St. Louis Psalter (Paris), c. 1260
Reciting the psalms was a way of training the king’s mind upon God, and the [Psalter of St. Louis] helped to fix his gaze in the right direction. This is evident from the B initial that begins the first psalm. In the top half of the letter King David stares down from a window in a tower and spies upon the naked Bathsheba, who is bathing below. Looking provided possibilities for sin, just as much as for salvation. In the lower half of the letter Louis is shown an example of a higher, spiritual mode of vision.

20. Here Louis IX’s Old Testament counterpart, set against a diamond-pattern of royal fleurs de lys, kneels in repentance before God, who is enthroned before God, who is enthroned, surrounded by a fiery mandorla or almond-shaped halo. This indicates that God is not physically present to the royal beholder, but an object of higher vision.
Abstract shapes and wavy lines were the means by which medieval artists distinguished different levels of reality within a picture. One of the problems for the modern beholder of Gothic art is understanding and differentiating these complex visual cues.

21. Matthew Paris. Self-Portrait Kneeling Before the Virgin and Child from the Historia Anglorum, made in St. Albans, England, , ink and color on parchment
The monastic tradition of history writing flourished into the Gothic period at the Benedictine monastery of St. Albans, where monk Matthew Paris (d. 1259) compiled a series of historical works. Paris wrote the texts of his chronicles, and he also added hundreds of marginal pictures that were integral to his history writing. The tinted drawings have a freshness that reveals the artist working outside the rigid compostional conventions – or at least pushing against them. In one of his books, Paris included an almost full-page, framed image of the Virgin and Child in a tender embrace. Under the picture, outside the sacred space of Mary and Jesus, Paris drew a picture of himself- identified not by likeness but by a label with his name, strung out in alternating red and blue capital letters behind him.
Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, 5th ed.

22. He looks not at the holy couple, but at the words in front of him
He looks not at the holy couple, but at the words in front of him. These offer his commentary on the image, pointing to the affection shown in the playful Christ Child’s movement toward his earthly mother, but emphasizing the authority he has as the divine incarnation of his father. Matthew Paris seems almost to hold his words in his hands, pushing them upward toward the object of his devotion.
Stokstad and Cothren, Art History, 5th ed.

23. Jean Pucelle. David Before Saul, folio 24 verso of the Belleville Breviary, from Paris, c. 1325, ink and tempera on vellum
By the end of the thirteenth century, secular workshops became increasingly active, meeting demands for books from students as well as from royal and noble patrons. They were professional guild members, and their personal reputation guaranteed the quality of their work. Although the cost of materials was still the major factor determining a book’s price, individual skill and “brand name” increasingly decided the value of the illuminator’s services. The centuries-old monopoly of the Church in book production had ended.

24. The secular illuminator Jean Pucelle created this breviary
The secular illuminator Jean Pucelle created this breviary. His name and those of some of his assistants appear at the end of the book, in a memorandum recording the payment they received for the work. Inscriptions in other Gothic illuminated books regularly state the production costs- the prices paid for materials, especially gold, and for the execution of initials, figures, flowery script, and other embellishments.
In this folio, we see Pucelle’s renditions of plants, a bird, butterflies, a dragonfly, a fish, a snail, and a monkey, revealing a keen interest in and close observation of the natural world. Also shown is the placement of fully modeled figures within three-dimensional architectural settings.

25. Jean Pucelle. Hours of Jeanne d’Evreux. c. 1325-1328

26. During the late 1200s, scribes began to create prayer books for the laity, often known as book of hours due to their use at prescribed times of the day. The earliest known example seems to have written for an unknown laywoman living in a small village near Oxford in about Nobility frequently purchased such texts, paying handsomely for decorative illustrations; among the most well-known creators of these is Jean Pucelle, whose work was commissioned by King Charles IV.

27. This tiny, exquisite Book of Hours was given by Charles IV to this queen, Jeanne d’Evreux, shortly after their marriage in Instead of the intense colors used by earlier illuminators, Pucelle worked in a technique called grisaille - monochromatic painting in shades of gray with faint touches of color- that emphasized his accomplished drawing.

28. The book combines two narrative cycles
The book combines two narrative cycles. One, the Hours of the Virgin, juxtaposes scenes from the Infancy and Passion of Christ, a form known as the Joys and Sorrows of the Virgin. The other is a collection of scenes from the life of St. Louis, whose new cult was understandably popular at court.
In the pages shown here, the joy of the Annunciation on the right is paired with the sorrow of the Betrayal and Arrest of Christ on the left. Queen Jeanne appears in the initial below the Annunciation, kneeling before a lectern. The inclusion of the patron in prayer within a scene conveyed the idea that the scenes were visions inspired by meditation rather than records of historical events.

29. The group of romping children at the bottom of the page (known as the “bas-de-page” in French) at first glance seems to echo the joy of the angels. Scholars have determined, however, that the children are playing “froggy in the middle,” a game in which one child was tagged by the others (a symbolic reference to the Mocking of Christ). The game thus evokes a darker mood, foreshadowing Jesus’ death as his life is beginning. The bas-de-page on the other side shows two knights riding goats and jousting at a barrel stuck on a pole, a spoof of military training that is perhaps a comment on the valor of the soldiers assaulting Jesus.

30. Mirror back showing lovers playing chess, c. 1300, ivory

31. On the mirror back shown here, the real aim of the chess game here is conquest of the lady’s body- indicated in the design of one wonderful ivory by a young man whose legs, crossed in triumph, clasp the erect pole that divides the tent (itself sexually suggestive). Visual emphasis is also given to the lady’s crotch by deep, jagged Gothic folds. A servant even points at it. Behind the male player an attendant holds a falcon, while the lady’s servant holds a chaplet or ring, a sign of her favors and her ultimate penetrability.

32. Castle of Love, lid of a jewelry box, from Paris, France, c
Castle of Love, lid of a jewelry box, from Paris, France, c , ivory and iron

33. This splendid casket is carved with scenes from romances and allegorical literature representing the courtly ideals of love and heroism. In the center of the lid, knights joust as ladies watch from the balcony; to the left, knights lay siege to the Castle of Love, the subject of an allegorical battle. The remaining scenes on the casket are drawn from well-known stories about Aristotle and Phyllis, Tristan and Iseult, and tales of the gallant, heroic deeds of Gawain, Galahad, and Lancelot. The box may originally have been a courtship gift. Gothic knights attempt to capture love’s fortress by shooting flowers from catapults. Among the castle’s defenders is Cupid, who aims his arrow at one of the knights while a comrade scales the walls on a ladder.

34.
The front of the casket has, from the left: Aristotle teaching Alexander the Great, Phyllis riding Aristotle, watched by Alexander from a window, and at the right, old people arriving at the Fountain of Youth, and young naked people in it. The Fountain of Youth is a regularly occurring scene, of Eastern origin, that shows old people being carried to a miraculous spring which immediately turns them into beautiful young people, one of the relatively few scenes in medieval art where figures are not just "naked" but "nude”.

35. The two ends show other Arthurian scenes: the adulterous lovers Tristan and Iseult are spied upon by Iseult's husband King Mark of Cornwall, hiding in a tree; his face can be seen reflected in the pool below, which they see, enabling them to switch to innocent conversation. This end also has a scene with a wounded unicorn, a maiden and a man with holding a spear which has been run through the unicorn, in a version of the subject of The Hunt of the Unicorn where the maiden has been used to lure the unicorn to his death. The other end has a scene with Galahad.

36. Blanche of Castile, Louis IX, and two monks, dedication page of a moralized Bible, from Paris, France, , ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum
This page, or folio, from the Gothic period comes from an illuminated manuscript created for the mother of the king of France, Blanche of Castile. She is depicted alongside her teenage son in the upper register (part) of the page while an older clergyman dictates a sacred text to his young apprentice in the lower part. The figures are set against a costly gold leaf background and situated under miniature cityscapes. This signifies their important roles in the creation of this highly valued manuscript.

37. Despite the flat, stylized treatment of the figures, notice how the robes or feet of each figure slightly overlaps the architectural frame to suggest that each figure is actually protruding out of the shallow field of depth allotted to each.
Also, in contrast to Romanesque art, note that the figures are not as compressed within the architectural framework in which they have been placed.

38. In 1226 a French king died, leaving his queen to rule his kingdom until their son came of age. The 38-year-old widow, Blanche of Castile, had her work cut out for her. Rebelling barons were eager to win back lands that her husband’s father had seized from them. They rallied troops against her, defamed her character, and even accused her of adultery and murder. 
Caught in a perilous web of treachery, insurrections, and open warfare, Blanche persuaded, cajoled, negotiated, and fought would-be enemies after her husband, King Louis VIII, died of dysentery after only a three-year reign. When their son Louis IX took the helm in 1234, he inherited a kingdom that was, for a time anyway, at peace.

39. A slender green column divides the queen’s space from that of her son, King Louis IX, to whom she deliberately gestures across the page, raising her left hand in his direction. Her pose and animated facial expression suggest that she is dedicating this manuscript, with its lessons and morals, to the young king.

40. In his left hand, between his forefinger and thumb, Louis holds a small golden ball or disc. During the mass that followed coronations, French kings and queens would traditionally give the presiding bishop of Reims 13 gold coins (all French kings were crowned in this northern French cathedral town.) This could reference Louis’ 1226 coronation, just three weeks after his father’s death, suggesting a probable date for this bible’s commission.
A manuscript this lavish, however, would have taken eight to ten years to complete—perfect timing, because in 1235, the 21-year-old Louis was ready to assume the rule of his Capetian kingdom from his mother.

41. Tympanum of the North Transept at Chartres
Queen Blanche and her son, the young king, echo a gesture and pose that would have been familiar to many Christians: the Virgin Mary and Christ enthroned side-by-side as celestial rulers of heaven, found in the numerous Coronations of the Virgin carved in ivory, wood, and stone. This scene was especially prevalent in tympana, the top sculpted semi-circle over cathedral portals found throughout France. On beholding the Morgan illumination, viewers would have immediately made the connection between this earthly Queen Blanche and her son, anointed by God with the divine right to rule, and that of Mary, Queen of heaven and her son, divine figures who offer salvation.

42. The illumination’s bottom register depicts a tonsured cleric (churchman with a partly shaved head), left, and an illuminator, right.
The cleric wears a sleeveless cloak appropriate for divine services—this is an educated man—and emphasizes his role as a scholar. He tilts his head forward and points his right forefinger at the artist across from him, as though giving instructions. No clues are given as to this cleric’s religious order, as he probably represents the many Parisian theologians responsible for the manuscript’s visual and literary content—all of whom were undoubtedly told to spare no expense.

43. On the right, the artist, donning a blue surcoat and wearing a cap, is seated on cushioned bench.
Knife in his left hand and stylus in his right, he looks down at his work: four vertically-stacked circles in a left column, with part of a fifth visible on the right. We know, from the 4887 medallions that precede this illumination, what’s next on this artist’s agenda: he will apply a thin sheet of gold leaf onto the background, and then paint the medallion's biblical and explanatory scenes in brilliant hues of lapis lazuli, green, red, yellow, grey, orange and sepia.

44. Moralized bibles, made expressedly for the French royal house, include lavishly illustrated abbreviated passages from the Old and New Testaments. Explanatory texts that allude to historical events and tales accompany these literary and visual readings, which—woven together—convey a moral.
Assuming historians are correct in identifying the two rulers, we are looking at the four people intensely involved in the production of this manuscript. As patron and ruler, Queen Blanche of Castile would have financed its production. As ruler-to-be, Louis IX’s job was to take its lessons to heart along with those from the other biblical and ancient texts that his tutors read with him.  

45. Blanche undoubtedly hand-picked the theologians whose job it was to establish this manuscript’s guidelines, select biblical passages, write explanations, hire copyists, and oversee the images that the artists should paint. Art and text, mutually dependent, spelled out advice that its readers, Louis IX and perhaps his siblings, could practice in their enlightened rule. The nobles, church officials, and perhaps even common folk who viewed this page could be reassured that their ruler had been well trained to deal with whatever calamities came his way.
This 13th century illumination represents the cutting edge of lavishness in a society that embraced conspicuous consumption. As a pedagogical tool, perhaps it played no small part in helping Louis IX achieve the status of sainthood, awarded by Pope Bonifiace VIII 27 years after the king’s death. This and other images in the bible moralisée explain why Parisian illuminators monopolized manuscript production at this time.

46. Golden Haggadah. Late medieval Spain, c. 1320, illuminated manuscript
A haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers and readings written to accompany the Passover “seder”, a ritual meal eaten on the eve of the Passover festival. The ritual meal was formalized during the 2nd century, after the example of the Greek “symposium”, in which philosophical debate was fortified by food and wine.
The literal meaning of the Hebrew word “haggadah” is a “narration” or “telling”. It refers to a command in the biblical book of “Exodus”, requiring Jews to "tell your son on that day: it is because of that which the Lord did for me when I came forth out of Egypt”.

47. Perhaps because it was mainly intended for use at home, and its purpose was educational, Jewish scribes and artists felt completely free to illustrate the Haggadah. Indeed it was traditionally the most lavishly decorated of all Jewish sacred writings, giving well-to-do Jews of the middle ages a chance to demonstrate their wealth and good taste as well as their piety. The man for whom the “Golden Haggadah” was made must have been rich indeed.
Jews acted as advisers, physicians and financiers to the Counts of Barcelona, who provided economic and social protection. They grew attuned to the tastes of the court and began commissioning manuscripts decorated in Christian style. Though the scribe who wrote its Hebrew text would have been a Jew, the illuminators of the Golden Haggadah are likely to have been Christian artists, instructed in details of Judaic symbolism by the scribe or patron.

48. Passover commemorates one of the most important events in the story of the Jewish people. Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism traces its origins back to Abraham. He was leader of the Israelites, a group of nomadic tribes in the Middle East some 4,000 years ago. Abraham established a religion that distinguished itself from other local beliefs by having only one, all-powerful God. According to a Covenant made between them, the Jews would keep God's laws, and in return they would be protected as chosen people.
The Israelites were captured and taken as slaves to Egypt, where they suffered much hardship. Eventually, a prophet called Moses delivered the Jews from their captivity with the help of several miraculous events intended to intimidate the Egyptian authorities. The last of these was the sudden death of the eldest son in every family. Jewish households were spared by smearing lambs' blood above their doors - a sign telling the “angel of death” to pass over.

49. The extravagant use of gold-leaf in the backgrounds of its 56 miniature paintings earned this magnificent manuscript its name: the “Golden Haggadah”.
The illumination of the manuscript - its paintings and decoration - was carried out by two artists. Though their names are unknown, the similarity of their styles implies they both worked in the same studio in the Barcelona region. The gothic style of northern French painting was a strong influence on Spanish illuminators, and these two were no exceptions.
There is also Italian influence to be seen in the rendering of the background architecture. Differences between the two artists may be attributed to their individual talents and training. The painter of the scenes shown here tends towards stocky figures with rather exaggerated facial expressions.

50.
Islamic rule in Spain came to an end in 1492, when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella (the Catholic Monarchs) defeated the Muslim army at Granada and restored the whole of Spain to Christianity. Months later the entire Jewish population was expelled. The manuscript found its way to Italy and passed through various hands, serving as a wedding present at one stage.

51. OBJECTS of WEALTH and RITUAL: GOTHIC ART
(Gothic Luxury Arts) ACTIVITIES and REVIEW

52. STUDENT PRESENTATION #1
One of these works functioned in a sacred context and one functioned in a secular context. Analyze how both these works reflect the cultural activities and interests of the French Gothic age in which they were created.

53. STUDENT PRESENTATION #2
This is a folio from a moralized bible. What is a moralized bible? What does this folio suggest in regard to both how and why the moralized bible was created in such a sumptuous manner?