1. Mechanisms Simple Machines
Show physics textbook chapter 10 physics TV machines at start of this.
Lever, Wheel and Axle, & Pulley

2. Machines MAIN IDEA Essential Questions
SECTION10.2
Machines
MAIN IDEA
Machines make tasks easier by changing the magnitude or the direction of the force exerted. They are used to engineer speed, distance, force and function.
Essential Questions
What is a machine, and how does it make tasks easier?
How are mechanical advantage, the effort force and the resistance force related?
What is a machine’s ideal mechanical advantage?
What does the term efficiency mean?

3. The Six Simple Machines
Mechanisms that manipulate magnitude of force and distance.
The Six Simple Machines
Pulley
Lever
Wheel and Axle

4. The Six Simple Machines
Inclined Plane
Wedge
Screw
These are the three least efficient simple machines. This is due to all the surface areas for these machines so more friction.

5. SECTION10.2
Machines

6. Mechanical Advantage
Ratio of the magnitude of the resistance and effort forces
Ratio of distance traveled by the effort and the resistance force
Calculated ratios allow designers to manipulate speed, distance, force, and function

7. Mechanical Advantage Example
A mechanical advantage of 4:1 tells us
what about a mechanism?
Magnitude of Force:
Effort force magnitude is 4 times less than the magnitude of the resistance force.
Distance Traveled by Forces:
Effort force travels 4 times greater distance than the resistance force.

8. Work
The force applied on an object times the distance traveled by the object parallel to the force
Initial position
Final position
Force (F)
Parallel Distance (d║)
Work = Force · Distance = F · d║

9. Work
The product of the effort times the distance traveled will be the same regardless of the system mechanical advantage

10. Mechanical Advantage Ratios
One is the magic number
If MA is greater than 1:
Proportionally less effort force is required to overcome the resistance force
Proportionally greater effort distance is required to overcome the resistance force
If MA is less than 1:
Proportionally greater effort force is required to overcome the resistance force
Proportionally less effort distance is required to overcome the resistance force
MA can never be less than or equal to zero.

11. Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA)
Theory-based calculation
Friction loss is not taken into consideration
Ratio of distance traveled by effort and resistance force
Used in efficiency and safety factor design calculations
An ideal machine will not take into account friction. This is a useful calculation to get maximum you can expect from the machine. Then you know there will be losses beyond that.
DE = Distance traveled by effort force
DR = Distance traveled by resistance force

12. Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA)
Inquiry-based calculation
Frictional losses are taken into consideration
Used in efficiency calculations
Ratio of force magnitudes
FR = Magnitude of resistance force
FE = Magnitude of effort force

13. Real World Mechanical Advantage
Can you think of a machine that has a mechanical advantage greater than 1?

14. Real World Mechanical Advantage
Can you think of a machine that has a mechanical advantage less than 1?

15. Lever
A rigid bar used to exert a pressure or sustain a weight at one point of its length by the application of a force at a second and turning at a third on a fulcrum.

16. 1st Class Lever
Fulcrum is located between the effort and the resistance force
Effort and resistance forces are applied to the lever arm in the same direction
Only class of lever that can have a MA greater than or less than 1
MA =1
Effort
Resistance
Resistance
Effort
MA <1
Effort
Resistance
MA >1

17. 2nd Class Lever Fulcrum is located at one end of the lever
Resistance force is located between the fulcrum and the effort force
Resistance force and effort force are in opposing directions
Always has a mechanical advantage >1
Resistance
Effort

18. 3rd Class Lever Fulcrum is located at one end of the lever
Effort force is located between the fulcrum and the resistance
Resistance force and effort force are in opposing directions
Always has a mechanical advantage < 1
Resistance
Effort

19. The Human Walking Machine
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine
Movement of the human body is explained by the same principles of force and work that describe all motion.
Simple machines, in the form of levers, give humans the ability to walk and run. The lever systems of the human body are complex.

20. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
However each system has the following four basic parts.
1. a rigid bar (bone)
2. source of force (muscle contraction)
3. a fulcrum or pivot (movable joints between bones)
4. a resistance (the weight of the body or an object being lifted or moved).

21. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
Lever systems of the body are not very efficient, and mechanical advantages are low.
This is why walking and jogging require energy (burn calories) and help people lose weight.

22. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
When a person walks, the hip acts as a fulcrum and moves through the arc of a circle, centered on the foot.
The center of mass of the body moves as a resistance around the fulcrum in the same arc.

23. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
The length of the radius of the circle is the length of the lever formed by the bones of the leg.

24. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
Athletes in walking races increase their velocity by swinging their hips upward to increase this radius.
A tall person’s body has lever systems with less mechanical advantage than a short person’s does.

25. The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
The Human Walking Machine (cont.)
Although tall people usually can walk faster than short people can, a tall person must apply a greater force to move the longer lever formed by the leg bones.
Walking races are usually 20 or 50 km long. Because of the inefficiency of their lever systems and the length of a walking race, very tall people rarely have the stamina to win.

26. Moment
The turning effect of a force about a point equal to the magnitude of the force times the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action from the force.
M = d x F
The terms moment and torque are synonymous.
Torque:  A force that produces or tends to produce rotation or torsion.

27. Lever Moment Calculation
5.5 in.
Resistance
Effort
15 lb
15 lbs
Calculate the effort moment acting on the lever above.
M =
d x F
Effort Moment =
5.5 in. x 15 lb
Effort Moment =
82.5 in. lb

28. Lever Moment Calculation
When the effort and resistance moments are equal, the lever is in static equilibrium.
Static equilibrium:
A condition where there are no net external forces acting upon a particle or rigid body and the body remains at rest or continues at a constant velocity.

29. Lever Moment Calculation
Effort
Resistance
5.5 in. ?
36 2/3 lb
15 lb
15 lbs
Using what you know regarding static equilibrium, calculate the unknown distance from the fulcrum to the resistance force.
Static equilibrium:
Effort Moment = Resistance Moment
82.5 in.-lb = 36 2/3 lb x DR
82.5 in.-lb /36.66 lb = DR
DR = 2.25 in.

30. Lever IMA Resistance Effort
Both effort and resistance forces will travel in a circle if unopposed.
Circumference is the distance around the perimeter of a circle.
Circumference = 2 p r
DE = 2 π (effort arm length)
DR = 2 π (resistance arm length)
______________________
2 π (effort arm length)
IMA =
2 π (resistance arm length)

31. Lever AMA
The ratio of applied resistance force to applied effort force
2.25 in.
5.5 in.
32 lb
16 lb
Effort
Resistance
What is the AMA of the lever above?
AMA = 2:1
Why is the IMA larger than the AMA?
IMA = 2.44:1
What is the IMA of the lever above?

32. Machines Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Machines (cont.)
Efficiency, e = Wo/Wi, can be rewritten as follows:

33. Efficiency The ratio of AMA to IMA No machine is 100% efficient.
In a machine, the ratio of useful energy output to the total energy input, or the percentage of the work input that is converted to work output
The ratio of AMA to IMA
What is the efficiency of the lever on the previous slide? Click to return to previous slide
AMA = 2:1
IMA = 2.44:1
No machine is 100% efficient.

34. Machines Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Machines (cont.)
A machine’s design determines its ideal mechanical advantage. An efficient machine has an MA almost equal to its IMA. A less-efficient machine has a small MA relative to its IMA.
To obtain the same resistance force, a greater force must be exerted in a machine of lower efficiency than in a machine of higher efficiency.

35. Wheel & Axle Can you think of an example of a wheel driving an axle?
A wheel is a lever arm that is fixed to a shaft, which is called an axle.
The wheel and axle move together as a simple lever to lift or to move an item by rolling.
It is important to know within the wheel and axle system which is applying the effort and resistance force – the wheel or the axle.
Can you think of an example of a wheel driving an axle?

36. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
A common version of the wheel and axle is a steering wheel, such as the one shown in the figure at right. The IMA is the ratio of the radii of the wheel and axle.

37. Wheel & Axle IMA
Ǿ6 in.
Ǿ20 in.
Both effort and resistance forces will travel in a circle if unopposed.
Circumference = 2pr or πd
DE = π [Diameter of effort (wheel or axle)]
DR = π [Diameter resistance (wheel or axle)]
______________________
IMA =
π (effort diameter)
π (resistance diameter)
What is the IMA of the wheel above if the axle is driving the wheel?
6 in. / 20 in. = .3 = .3:1 = 3:10
What is the IMA of the wheel above if the wheel is driving the axle?
20 in. / 6 in. = 3.33 = 3.33:1

38. Wheel & Axle AMA
Ǿ6 in.
Ǿ20 in.
200lb
Use the wheel and axle assembly illustration to the right to solve the following.
70lb
What is the AMA if the wheel is driving the axle?
200lb/70lb = 2.86 = 2.86:1
What is the efficiency of the wheel and axle assembly?
= 85.9%

39. Pulley
A pulley is a lever consisting of a wheel with a groove in its rim which is used to change the direction and magnitude of a force exerted by a rope or cable.
Do physics textbook BrainPop pulleys here

40. Pulley IMA Movable Pulley - 2nd class lever with an IMA of 2
Fixed Pulley
- 1st class lever with an IMA of 1
- Changes the direction of force
10 lb
5 lb
5 lb
Movable Pulley
- 2nd class lever with an IMA of 2
- Force directions stay constant
10 lb
10 lb

41. Pulley IMA

42. Pulleys In Combination
Fixed and movable pulleys in combination (called a block and tackle) provide mechanical advantage and a change of direction for effort force.
If a single rope or cable is threaded multiple times through a system of pulleys,
Pulley IMA = # strands opposing the
force of the load and
movable pulleys
It’s the number of strands opposing the load so the load is downward so the downward rope doesn’t count in figuring the MA.
Note: The IMA of this system is only about 3.9 because the shortest segment of the rope, tied to the fixed pulley, is not vertical. Since the load is downward, only the upward component of that strand’s force will count, and at the angle shown, the vertical component is about 0.9 times the angled force in that strand. Because resolving a vector into components is not covered until unit 2, this fine point is glossed over at this time.
Could you lift this motorcycle? Ideally, it will take 150 lb of force. A student weighing less than 150 lb could hang on the rope without lifting the motorcycle. This demonstrates an advantage of having the free end pointing upward; then a person can pull with a force greater than their own weight.
What is the IMA of the pulley system on the right? 4

43. Machines Compound Machines
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines
Most machines, no matter how complex, are combinations of one or more of the six simple machines: the lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, and screw. These machines are shown in the figure.
Figure given on page 269.

44. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
A machine consisting of two or more simple machines linked in such a way that the resistance force of one machine becomes the effort force of the second is called a compound machine.

45. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
In a bicycle, the pedal and the front gear act like a wheel and axle. The effort force is the force that the rider exerts on the pedal, Frider on pedal.
The resistance is the force that the front gear exerts on the chain, Fgear on chain.

46. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
The chain exerts an effort force on the rear gear, Fchain on gear, equal to the force exerted on the chain.
The resistance force is the force that the wheel exerts on the road, Fwheel on road.

47. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
According to Newton’s third law, the ground exerts an equal forward force on the wheel, which accelerates the bicycle forward.
The MA of a compound machine is the product of the MAs of the simple machines from which it is made.

48. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
In the case of the bicycle, MA = MAmachine 1 × MAmachine 2.

49. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
The IMA of each wheel-and-axle machine is the ratio of the distances moved.
For the pedal gear,
For the rear wheel,

50. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
For the bicycle, then,

51. Compound Machines (cont.)
SECTION10.2
Machines
Compound Machines (cont.)
We will return to the bicycle when we talk about sprocket and chain systems.

52. Compound Machines 𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 ⋅𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟
If one simple machine is used after another, the mechanical advantages multiply.
𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 ⋅𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟
=#𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠⋅ 𝐷 𝐸 𝐷 𝑅
=2⋅ 12.0 𝑓𝑡 4.0 𝑓𝑡 =2⋅3=6

53. Pulleys In Combination
With separate ropes or cables, the output of one pulley system can become the input of another pulley system. This is a compound machine.
80 lbf
10 lbf
What is the IMA of the pulley system on the left?
20 lbf
𝐼𝑀 𝐴 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =𝐼𝑀 𝐴 1 ⋅𝐼𝑀 𝐴 2 ⋅𝐼𝑀 𝐴 3
40 lbf
=2⋅ 2⋅
2=8

54. Pulley AMA What is the AMA of the pulley system on the right?
800 lb
230 lb
What is the AMA of the pulley system on the right?
AMA = 3.48 = 3.48:1
What is the efficiency of the pulley system on the right?
% Efficiency =
= 87%

55. Common misconception: Angles don’t matter
Pulley IMA = # strands opposing load only if strands are opposite/parallel to the resistance force.
In the pulley on the right, the IMA is not 2. Although the vertical forces from the two strands still are each half the resistance force, the tension in the string depends on the angle. We will not be addressing these types of problems, though you will learn how to do so in unit 2 when you deal with trusses.
In your measurements, keep the strands in the opposite direction from the resistance force to avoid this complication.
Calculating IMA
requires trigonometry
IMA=2

56. Pulley IMA = # strands opposing the load.
Common misconception:
“Count the effort strand if it pulls up”
sometimes
Pulley IMA = # strands opposing the load.
80 lbf
IMA=2
Count a strand if it opposes the load or the load’s movable pulley. It might pull up or down.
In the movable pulley here, the effort force is used to pull the movable pulley down along with the load. This is used, for example, in pulling the foot of a sail downward after it has been hoisted. The resistance will only be forced downward 1 ft for every 2 ft of rope pulled out of the system.
40 lbf
40 lbf

57. Image Resources
Microsoft, Inc. (2008). Clip art. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from