1. COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE
communication the exchange of information and ideas: involves encoding, transmitting, and decoding messages
paralinguistic behaviors are nonlanguage sounds (e.g., “oohh”, laugh) and speech modifications (e.g., variations in pitch, intonation, rate of delivery, pauses) that change the form and meaning of the message
nonlinguistic cues include body posture, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, head and body movement, and physical proximity
language a common system used by a group of people for giving meaning to sounds, words, gestures, and other symbols to enable communication with one another
phonology the study of the linguistic rules governing a language's sound system; the English language uses approximately 45 different sound elements, called phonemes
morphology how the basic units of meaning are combined into words; a morpheme is the smallest element of language that carries meaning
syntax the system or rules governing the meaningful arrangement of words into sentences
semantics a system of rules that relate phonology and syntax to meaning; describes how people use language to convey meaning
pragmatics a set of rules (e.g., turn taking) governing how language is used
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.1

2. Speech is one of the most complex and difficult human endeavors.
speech the behavior of producing a language code by making appropriate vocal sound patterns
Although not the only possible vehicle for expressing language (gestures, manual signing, pictures, and written symbols can also be used), speech is a most effective and efficient method.
Speech is one of the most complex and difficult human endeavors.
Speech sounds are the product of four separate but related processes:
respiration breathing provides the power supply for speech
phonation the production of sound when the vocal folds of the larynx are drawn together by the contraction of specific muscles causing the air to vibrate
resonation the sound quality of the vibrating air is shaped as it passes through the throat, mouth, and sometimes nasal cavities
articulation the formation of specific, recognizable speech sounds by the tongue, lips, teeth, and mouth
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.2

4. NORMAL SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Birth to 6 Months
first communicates by crying; different types of crying are selected via parental attention
comfort sounds--coos, gurgles, and sighs--develop into babbling
vowel sounds are produced earlier than consonants
may react differently to loud and soft voices
turns eyes and head in the direction of a sound
6 to 12 Months
babbling becomes differentiated by end of first year and contains some of the phonetic elements of the meaningful speech of 2- year-olds
baby develops inflection--her voice rises and falls
may respond appropriately to "no," "bye-bye," or her own name and may perform an action, such as clapping her hands, when told to will repeat simple sounds and words, such as "mama"
12 to 18 Months
by 18 months, says several words with appropriate meaning
pronunciation is far from perfect (e.g., “tup” for cup, “goggie” for dog)
communicates by pointing and perhaps saying a word or two
responds to simple commands (e.g., "Give me the cup.")
18 to 24 Months
echolaliarepeating the speech they hearis common; normal developmental phase
great spurt in acquisition and use of speech
receptive vocabulary grows rapidly and may reach 1,000 words by age 2
understands concepts as "soon" and "later" and makes more subtle distinctions between objects, such as cats and dogs, and knives, forks, and spoons
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.4

5. NORMAL SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (con’t)
2 to 3 Years
expressive vocabulary of up to 900 words, averaging 3 to 4 words per sentence
participates in conversations
identifies colors, uses plurals, and tells simple stories
follows compound commands (e.g., "Pick up the doll and bring it to me.")
uses most vowel sounds and some consonant sounds correctly
3 to 4 Years
has lots to say, speaks rapidly, and asks many questions
sentences become longer and more varied (e.g., "Cindy's playing in water.")
understands children's stories and concepts as funny, bigger, and secret
substitutes certain sounds, perhaps saying "baf" for bath, or "yike" for like.
repetitions and hesitations (e.g., "b-b-ball," "l-l-little") are normal
4 to 5 Years
vocabulary of over 1,500 words and uses sentences averaging 5 words in length
begins to modify speech for the listener
uses conjunctions such as if, when, and because
recites poems and sings songs from memory
may still have difficulty with some consonant sounds (e.g., /r/, /s/, /z/) and blends (e.g., "tr," "gl," "sk," "str")
After 5 Years
typical 6-year-old uses most of the complex forms of adult English
some consonant sounds and blends are not mastered until age 7 or 8
grammar and speech patterns of child in first grade usually match those of her family, neighborhood, and region
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.5

6. DEFINING COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
When does a communication difference become a communication disorder? Emerick and Haynes (1986) emphasize the impact that a communication pattern has on one's life and suggest that a communication difference be considered a disability when any of these criteria are met:
the transmission and/or perception of messages is faulty
the person is placed at an economic disadvantage
the person is placed at a learning disadvantage
the person is placed at a social disadvantage
there is a negative impact upon the person's emotional growth
the problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the person
IDEA defines the speech or language impaired category of disability as:
a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or voice impairment which adversely affects... educational performance
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.6

7. SPEECH DISORDERS
A child’s speech is considered impaired when it deviates so far from the speech of other people of the same age and cultural group that it
calls attention to itself,
interferes with communication, or
causes the speaker or his listeners to be uncomfortable
articulation disorders malfunction or improper use of the complicated system of muscles, nerves, and organs resulting in four kinds of speech sound errors:
substitution saying one sound for another (e.g., "doze" for those)
distortion producing unfamiliar, nonstandard speech sounds (e.g., "schleep," "zleep," or "thleep" for sleep)
omission leaving out a sound in a word (e.g., "cool" for school)
addition adding extra sounds (e.g., "buhrown" for brown)
fluency disorders interruptions in the flow of speech, characterized by atypical rate, rhythm, and repetitions in sounds, syllables, words, and phrases
cluttering speech is very rapid with extra sounds or mispronounced sounds; speech is garbled to the point of unintelligibility
stuttering repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds, especially at the beginning of words; complete verbal blocks
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.7

8. SPEECH DISORDERS (con’t)
stuttering (con't.)
cause remains unknown
more common among males than females
regardless of what language is spoken, about 1% of the general population has a stuttering problem
considered a disorder of childhood; typically begins between ages of 3 and 5, rarely begins past the age of 6
appears to be related to the setting or circumstances of speech
most people who stutter are fluent about 95% of the time; may not stutter when singing, talking to their pets, or reciting a poem in unison with others
all children experience some dysfluencies in the course of developing normal speech patterns; it is important not to overreact and insist on perfect speech
voice disorders abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration
phonation voice sounds breathy, hoarse, husky, or strained; in severe cases, there is no voice at all
resonance either too many (hypernasality) or not enough (hyponasality) sounds coming out through the air passages of the nose
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.8

9. LANGUAGE DISORDERS
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) defines a language disorder as
impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and/or other symbol systems. The disorder may involve (1) the form of language (phonology, morphology, and syntax), (2) the content of language (semantics), and/or (3) the function of language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination (1993, p. 40).
receptive language disorder difficulty in understanding language
may be unable to learn the days of the week in proper order or may find it impossible to follow a sequence of commands, such as "Pick up the paint brushes, wash them in the sink, and then put them on a paper towel to dry."
expressive language disorder difficulty in expressing oneself through language
may have a limited vocabulary for his age, be confused about the order of sounds or words ("hostipal," "aminal," "wipe shield winders"), and use tenses and plurals incorrectly ("Them throwed a balls").
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.9

10. ASSESSING COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
A comprehensive evaluation to detect the presence of a communication disorder would likely include the following components.
articulation test assesses the frequency and types of speech errors the child is making
hearing test determines whether a hearing problem is causing the communication disorder
auditory discrimination test determines whether the child is hearing sounds correctly
vocabulary and language development test determines the amount of vocabulary the child has acquired; an overall language test, which assesses the child's understanding and production of language structures, is also frequently used
language samples provides an accurate example of the child's expressive speech and language; child may be asked to describe a picture, tell a story, or answer open-ended questions
observation in natural settings provides samples of the child's speech and language competence in various social contexts
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.10

11. NATURALISTIC INTERVENTIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING
Naturalistic interventions (also called milieu teaching strategies)occur in real or simulated activities that naturally occur in the home, school, or community environments in which a child normally functions. They involve:
structuring the environment to create numerous opportunities for desired child responses (e.g., holding up a toy and asking, "What do you want?"), and
structuring adult responses to a child's communication (e.g., the child points outside and says, "Go wifth me," and the teacher says, "OK, I'll go with you.").
Kaiser (in press) suggests six strategies for creating naturalistic opportunities for language teaching:
interesting materials
out of reach
inadequate portions
choice-making
assistance
unexpected situations
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.11

12. AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION
augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) a diverse set of strategies and methods to assist individuals who are unable to meet their communication needs through speech or writing
ACC has three components:
a representational symbol set or vocabulary
a means for selecting the symbols
a means for transmitting the symbols
Each of the three components of ACC may be unaided and aided.
Unaided techniques do not require a physical aid or device; they include oral speech, gestures, facial expressions, general body posture, and manual signs.
Aided techniques involve an external device or piece of equipment such as a communication board or computerized speech synthesizer.
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e,  2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
T 9.12