1. Lesson Overview 12.1 Identifying the Substance of Genes

2. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Griffith’s Experiments Griffith isolated different strains of bacteria. Only one caused pneumonia.

3. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Griffith’s Experiments When injecting mice with bacteria, the mice. When injecting mice with bacteria, the mice stayed.

4. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Griffith’s Experiments First, Griffith took the, them, and then injected the them into mice. Mice, showing that it wasn’t a toxin the bacteria produce.

5. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Griffith’s Experiments In Griffith’s next experiment, he mixed the S-strain with R strain and injected the mixture into mice. The mice.

6. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Transformation Process called - one type of bacteria is changed into another. Because transformed bacteria inherited ability to cause disease, Griffith concluded the transforming factor was a.

7. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Molecular Cause of Transformation Avery proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and RNA. Transformation still.

8. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Molecular Cause of Transformation Then destroyed and transformation did occur. Therefore, DNA was the transforming factor. Meant that DNA stores and transmits genetic.

9. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Bacteriophages - virus that infects bacteria

10. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Hershey-Chase Experiment Hershey and Chase studied a bacteriophage with a DNA core and a protein coat. Wanted to determine if the protein or DNA changed bacteria Hershey and Chase grew viruses containing P-32 and S-35

11. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Hershey-Chase Experiment Bacteria contained P-32, found in. Hershey and Chase confirmed Avery’s results - that was the genetic material found in.

12. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Role of DNA DNA can, copy, and genetic information

13. Lesson Overview 12.2 The Structure of DNA

14. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides Located in. Made up of. Three components: a 5-carbon sugar called, a group, and a base.

15. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides DNA has four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, or.

16. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Chargaff’s Rules Chargaff discovered the amount of [A] and [T] bases are almost. The same is true for guanine [G] and cytosine [C]. - and is known as “Chargaff’s rules.”

17. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Franklin’s X-Rays Rosalind Franklin used X-ray diffraction that showed: -DNA has twisted around each other. -The nitrogen bases are near the.

18. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes The Work of Watson and Crick Franklin’s X-ray pattern enabled Watson and Crick to build a model of DNA. Built 3-D model of DNA in a.

19. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Antiparallel Strands DNA strands are “antiparallel”— they run in directions. Lets nitrogenous bases join at center and allows each strand to carry nucleotides.

20. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Hydrogen Bonding bonds form between bases and hold strands together. Hydrogen bonds are weak and allow strands to.

21. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Identifying the Substance of Genes Base Pairing Fit between A–T and G–C nucleotides called.

22. 12-3 DNA REPLICATION FEDEROFF

23. EUKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION Step 1 – unzips the DNA molecule.

24. Step 2 – DNA adds on complementary nucleotides.

25. Step 3 – The strand replicates in instead of continually like the strand. Leading StrandLagging Strand

30. OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS

31. Step 4 –Enzyme joins the fragments on lagging strand.

33. Step 5 – As replication continues, the strands into helix.

34. _ Are the tips of chromosomes make sure genes aren’t lost during replication.

35. PROKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION Starts at point, and goes in 2 directions until the chromosome is copied.

36. PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC DNA Replication Process [3D Animation] – Biology / Medicine Animations HD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27TxKoFU2Nw

37. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Lesson Overview 13.1 RNA

38. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation The Role of RNA First step - copy. RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides. RNA uses the base sequence copied from DNA to make.

39. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Comparing RNA and DNA Each nucleotide in both DNA and RNA is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Three differences between RNA and DNA: (1) Sugar in RNA is. (2) RNA is -stranded. (3) RNA contains instead of thymine (T).

40. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Comparing RNA and DNA The cell uses DNA “master plan” to prepare RNA “blueprints.” DNA stays in, while RNA goes to.

41. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Functions of RNA RNA is like a disposable copy of a segment of DNA, a working copy of a single gene. RNA assembes into.

42. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Functions of RNA Three main types of RNA: RNA, RNA, and RNA.

43. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Messenger RNA The RNA molecules that _ instructions are known as messenger RNA ( )

44. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA ( ) make up.

45. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Transfer RNA Transfer RNA ( ) transfers to the ribosome

46. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Making RNA - Transcription – Turning into.

47. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Transcription In prokaryotes, RNA and protein synthesis occurs in the. In eukaryotes, RNA is produced in the and moves to the to produce proteins.

48. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Transcription Requires RNA polymerase, which DNA strands to assemble complementary strand of.

49. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation Promoters RNA polymerase binds to. Promoters show RNA polymerase where to making RNA. Similar signals cause transcription to.

50. Lesson Overview Lesson OverviewFermentation RNA Editing Parts of RNA are cut out and stay the nucleus are called. The remaining pieces, known as, are joined together into the final mRNA, which the nucleus.

51. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Lesson Overview 13.2 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis

52. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Genetic Code First step - DNA to RNA. Contains code for making proteins. The genetic code is read “base letters” at a time and corresponds to a single.

53. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Genetic Code Proteins are made by joining amino acids together into long chains, called. There are about amino acids.

54. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Genetic Code The type and of amino acids determine the of proteins. Order of amino acids affects the of the protein, which determines its.

55. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Genetic Code Each three-letter “word” in mRNA is known as a. A codon specifies a single.

56. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Start and Stop Codons The “ ” codon AUG begins protein synthesis. Then mRNA is read, three bases at a time, until it reaches a “ ” codon, which ends translation.

57. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Translation The decoding of is called translation.

58. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Steps in Translation mRNA is in the and then in the.

59. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Steps in Translation Translation begins when a ribosome attaches to mRNA. As the ribosome reads mRNA, it directs to amino acid.

60. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Steps in Translation Each tRNA molecule carries amino acid. Each tRNA has three unpaired bases, called the — which compliment one mRNA.

61. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Steps in Translation bonds form between amino acids At the same time, the bond holding tRNA to its amino acid is.

62. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Steps in Translation The polypeptide chain grows until the ribosome reaches a “ ” codon, which translation.

63. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Roles of tRNA and rRNA in Translation holds proteins in place.

64. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Molecular Basis of Heredity contain for assembling proteins.

65. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Molecular Basis of Heredity - the way DNA, RNA, and proteins put genetic information into in living cells.

66. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis The Molecular Basis of Heredity There is a nature in the genetic code. Although some organisms show slight variations in the amino acids assigned to particular codons, the code is always read three bases at a time and in the same direction. Despite their enormous diversity in form and function, living organisms display remarkable at life’s most basic level, the molecular biology of the gene.

67. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Lesson Overview 13.3 Mutations

68. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Types of Mutations Cells can make mistakes, called.

69. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Types of Mutations All mutations fall into two basic categories: mutations - changes in a single gene mutations - changes in whole chromosomes.

70. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Gene Mutations mutations - changes in one or a few nucleotides. Changes can be on to every cell that develops from the original one.

71. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Gene Mutations Point mutations include.

72. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Substitutions In a substitution, one base is to a different base. Usually affect a amino acid

73. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Insertions and Deletions Insertions and deletions are mutations in which one base is. Called mutations because they shift the “reading frame” of the genetic message.

74. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Chromosomal Mutations Chromosomal mutations involve changes in the or of chromosomes. Four types:, duplication,, and translocation.

75. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Chromosomal Mutations Deletion involves the of all or part of a chromosome.

76. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Chromosomal Mutations Duplication produces an of all or part of a chromosome.

77. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Chromosomal Mutations Inversion the direction of parts of a chromosome.

78. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Chromosomal Mutations Translocation occurs when part of one chromosome off and to another.

79. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Effects of Mutations Genetic material can be altered by natural or artificial means. Resulting mutations may or may not affect an organism, most do not. Some mutations that affect individual organisms can also affect a species or even an entire ecosystem.

80. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Effects of Mutations Many mutations are produced by in genetic processes. An incorrect base is inserted roughly once in every bases. Small changes can over time.

81. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Mutagens Some mutations arise from - chemical or physical in the environment. Chemical mutagens include certain pesticides, plant alkaloids, tobacco smoke, and environmental pollutants. Physical mutagens include forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays and UV light. can also be a factor.

82. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Harmful Effects The most harmful mutations dramatically change protein or gene. Example: Sickle Cell Disease

83. Lesson Overview Lesson Overview Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis Beneficial Effects Some mutations can be highly to an organism or species. Example: Pesticide Resistance and Polyploidy