1. November 24, 2009 Glimpses of C++0x Dr. Partha Pratim Das Interra Systems (India) Pvt. Ltd. Language Features: Part 0

2. 2 24-Nov-09 Agenda What is C++0x? Select Language Features

3. 3 24-Nov-09 What is C++0x? Basics

4. 4 24-Nov-09 What is C++0x? C++0x is the next ISO C++ standard. Current C++ standard is referred to as C++98 (C++03) Current C standard is referred to as C99 Current C++0x draft is SC22-N-4411.pdf. It comprises: –Language Features –Standard Library Enhancements Expected to be ready for national votes in 2010. After that another 18 month before ISO signs up. No features are expected to be added or removed after March 2010. The name "C++0x" is a relict of the hope for a C++08 or C++09. Now we should think of 'x' as hexadecimal.

5. 5 24-Nov-09 Who decides on C++0x? ISO Standards committee, SC22 WG21. Committee meets 2/3 times a year for a week each time. Countries have national standards bodies with C++ groups. –Active – Canada, France, Germany, Switzerland, UK, and USA. –Less Active – Denmark, the Netherlands, Japan, Norway, Spain. Work goes on offline and recorded as committee papers on the WG21 website. There are sub-working groups, such as "Core", "Library", "Evolution", and "Concurrency." The Main committee as a whole votes (one member one vote) and if something is accepted the nations vote. The committee has formal liaison with the C standards group (SC22 WG14), POSIX, and several other groups.

6. 6 24-Nov-09 What are the aims of C++0x? C++ is a general-purpose programming language with a bias towards systems programming that –is a better C –supports data abstraction –supports object-oriented programming –supports generic programming

7. 7 24-Nov-09 What are the aims of C++0x? Make C++ a better language for systems programming and library building –Avoid providing specialized facilities (e.g. numeric computation or Windows-style application development). Make C++ easier to teach and learn –Through increased uniformity, stronger guarantees, and facilities supportive of novices Maintain very stringent compatibility constraints. –Only very rarely break standards conforming code, though that's done when a new keyword (e.g. static_assert, nullptr, and constexpr) is introduced.

8. 8 24-Nov-09 What are the design goals of C++0x? Maintain stability and compatibility Prefer libraries to language extensions Prefer generality to specialization Support both experts and novices Increase type safety Improve performance and ability to work directly with hardware Fit into the real world

9. 9 24-Nov-09 What are the design goals of C++0x? Systems programming –improve the support for close-to-the-hardware programming (e.g. low- level embedded systems programming) and efficiency. –Examples are constexpr, std::array, and generalized PODs. Generic programming –GP is among the great success stories of C++98; we needed to improve support for it based on experience. –Examples are auto and template aliases. Machine model and concurrency –provide stronger guarantees for and better facilities for using modern hardware (e.g. multicores and weakly coherent memory models). –Examples are the thread ABI, thread-local storage, and the atomics ABI. Library building –remove limitations, inefficiencies, and irregularities from the abstraction mechanisms. –Examples are inline namespace, inherited constructors, and rvalue references.

10. 10 24-Nov-09 C++0x: Language Features __cplusplus alignments attributes atomic operations auto C99 features enum class copying and rethrowing exceptions constant expressions decltype defaulted and deleted functions delegating constructors Dynamic Initialization and Destruction with Concurrency explicit conversion operators extended integer types extern templates for statement; see range for statement suffix return type syntax (extended function declaration syntax) in-class member initializers inherited constructors initializer lists (uniform and general initialization) lambdas

11. 11 24-Nov-09 C++0x: Language Features local classes as template arguments long long integers memory model move semantics; see rvalue references Inline namespace Preventing narrowing null pointer (nullptr) PODs (generalized) range for statement raw string literals right-angle brackets rvalue references Simple SFINAE (Substitution Failure Is Not An Error) rule static (compile-time) assertions (static_assert) template alias template typedef; see template alias thread-local storage (thread_local) unicode characters Uniform initialization syntax and semantics unions (generalized) user-defined literals variadic templates

12. 12 24-Nov-09 C++0x: Standard Library abandoning a process Improvements to algorithms array async() atomic operations Condition variables Improvements to containers function and bind forward_list (a singly-liked list) future and promise garbage collection ABI hash_tables (unordered_map) metaprogramming and type traits Mutual exclusion random number generators regex (regular expression library) scoped allocators shared_ptr smart pointers threads Time utilities tuple unique_ptr unordered_map weak_ptr system error

13. 13 24-Nov-09 C++0x: Compiler Support These have varied Language and Library Support –Gnu C++ (GCC 4.5) –Microsoft Visual C++ (VC10 Beta 2) –Sun C++ –Intel C++ –IBM XL C++ Good Library Support exists in –Boost

14. 14 24-Nov-09 Select Language Features

15. 15 24-Nov-09 __cplusplus

16. 16 24-Nov-09 __cplusplus In C++98 In C++0x, it will be defined as a different (greater) value #define __cplusplus 199711L

17. 17 24-Nov-09 long long – a longer integer (C99)

18. 18 24-Nov-09 long long: a longer integer An integer that's at least 64 bits long. There are no long long longs long cannot be spelled short long long. long long is in C99 long long x = 9223372036854775807LL;

19. 19 24-Nov-09 Right angle brackets

20. 20 24-Nov-09 right angle brackets Consider: In C++98 this is a syntax error because there is no space between the two >s. C++0x recognizes such > as a correct termination of two template argument lists. list > lvs;

21. 21 24-Nov-09 static_assert

22. 22 24-Nov-09 static_assert: static (compile-time) assertions A static (compile time) assertion consists of a constant expression and a string literal: The compiler evaluates the expression and writes the string as an error message if the expression is false (assertion failed). static_assert(expression,string); static_assert(sizeof(long) >= 8, "64-bit support required for this library."); struct S { X m1; Y m2; }; static_assert(sizeof(S)==sizeof(X)+sizeof(Y), "unexpected padding in S");

23. 23 24-Nov-09 static_assert: static (compile-time) assertions Cannot work for runtime checks: Need to throw exception int f(int* p, int n) { static_assert(p==0,"p is not null"); // error: static_assert() expression // not a constant expression //... }

24. 24 24-Nov-09 auto – Type Inference

25. 25 24-Nov-09 auto – Type Inference auto deduces the type of a variable from its initializer expression. auto keyword can occur as a simple type specifier (useable with cv-qualifiers, *, &) The old meaning of auto ("this is a local variable") is redundant and unused Semantics of auto should follow exactly the rules of template argument deduction. auto x = 3.14; // x has type double

26. 26 24-Nov-09 auto: Examples int foo(); auto x1 = foo(); // x1 : int const auto& x2 = foo(); // x2 : const int& auto& x3 = foo(); // x3 : int&: // error, cannot bind a // reference to a temporary float& bar(); auto y1 = bar(); // y1 : float const auto& y2 = bar(); // y2 : const float& auto& y3 = bar(); // y3 : float& A* fii() auto* z1 = fii(); // z1 : A* auto z2 = fii(); // z2 : A* auto* z3 = bar(); // error, bar does not // return a pointer type

27. 27 24-Nov-09 auto – Use Where type of initializer is not clear up-front –Inside template functions When the type is a lot of typing –Nested template types

28. 28 24-Nov-09 auto: Use In C++98 In C++0x template void printall(const vector & v) { for (auto p = v.begin(); p!=v.end(); ++p) cout << *p << "\n"; } template void printall(const vector & v) { for (typename vector ::const_iterator p = v.begin(); p!=v.end(); ++p) cout << *p << "\n"; }

29. 29 24-Nov-09 auto: Aliasing Is unintentional aliasing or slicing of objects likely? Basing auto on template argument deduction rules provides a natural way for a programmer to express his intention. class B {... virtual void f(); } class D : public B {... void f(); } B* d = new D();... auto b = *d;// is this casting a reference to a base // or slicing an object? b.f(); // is polymorphic behavior preserved?

30. 30 24-Nov-09 auto: Value & Reference Semantics Controlling copying and referencing is the same as with variables whose types are declared explicitly Value semantics is the default, and reference semantics is provided through consistent use of &. A foo(); A& bar();... A x1 = foo(); // x1 : A auto x1 = foo(); // x1 : A A& x2 = foo(); // error, we cannot bind a nonlvalue // to a nonconst reference auto& x2 = foo(); // error A y1 = bar(); // y1 : A auto y1 = bar(); // y1 : A A& y2 = bar(); // y2 : A& auto& y2 = bar(); // y2 : A&

31. 31 24-Nov-09 auto: Return Type of Function The return type would be deduced as the type ret in the expression auto add(auto x, auto y) { return x + y; } auto ret = x + y;

32. 32 24-Nov-09 auto: Multi-Variable Declarations More than one variable can be declared in a single statement: In the case of two or more variables, all deductions must lead to the same type Declarations are handled from left to right int i; auto a = 1, *b = &i; auto x = 1, *y = &x;

33. 33 24-Nov-09 auto: Direct Initialization The following are allowed: auto x = 1;// x : int auto x(1);// x : int const auto& y(x) const auto& y = x; new auto(1);// int* auto* x = new auto(1);// int*

34. 34 24-Nov-09 decltype

35. 35 24-Nov-09 decltype: the type of an expression decltype(E) is the type ("declared type") of the name or expression E and can be used in declarations. int i; const int&& foo(); struct A { double x; } const A* a = new A(); decltype(i); // type is int decltype(foo()); // type is const int&& decltype(a->x); // type is double

36. 36 24-Nov-09 decltype typeof (declared type) has been popular in generic programming. typeof implementations in actual use are incomplete and incompatible Standard is opting for decltype. decltype is really needed for something that is not a variable, such as a return type. For the type for a variable about to be initialized auto is often a simpler choice.

37. 37 24-Nov-09 decltype: Examples void f(const vector & a, vector & b) { typedef decltype(a[0]*b[0]) Tmp; for (int i=0; i<b.size(); ++i) { Tmp* p = new Tmp(a[i]*b[i]); //... } //... } #include template auto mul(T x, U y) -> decltype( x*y ) { return x*y; }

38. 38 24-Nov-09 decltype: Semantics decltype(e) is the declared type of the variable or formal parameter for e in –namespace or local scope, –a static member variable, –a literal or –a formal parameter of a function. decltype(e) is a reference type only if the variable or formal parameter is declared as a reference type. decltype(e) is the declared return type of the function for the invocation of a function or operator. decltype does not evaluate its argument expression. decltype(T) is equal to T for any type expression T.

39. 39 24-Nov-09 Suffix Return Type Syntax

40. 40 24-Nov-09 Suffix Return Type Syntax Use decltype to specify return types that depend on the types of function arguments Argument names are not in scope! Use hack – works for all types New syntax solves template decltype((*(T*)0)+(*(U*)0)) add(T t, U u); template decltype(t+u) add(T t, U u); template auto add(T t, U u) > decltype(t + u); auto add(auto x, auto y) { return x + y; } // short-cut

41. 41 24-Nov-09 Defaulted or Deleted Functions

42. 42 24-Nov-09 defaulted or deleted functions Common idiom for Prohibit Copy: Idiom to Prohibit Copy is now expressed directly: class X { //... private: X& operator=(const X&);// No definition X(const X&); }; class X { //... X& operator=(const X&) = delete; // No copying X(const X&) = delete; };

43. 43 24-Nov-09 defaulted or deleted functions When we want the default, we say: Being explicit about the default is obviously redundant, but certainly more expressive. The "default" mechanism can be used for any function that has a default. class Y { //... Y& operator=(const Y&) = default; // default // copy semantics Y(const Y&) = default; }

44. 44 24-Nov-09 defaulted or deleted functions The "delete" mechanism can be used for any function. For example, to eliminate an undesired conversion: struct Z { //... Z(long long); // can initialize with // an long long Z(long) = delete; // but not anything less };

45. 45 24-Nov-09 enum class

46. 46 24-Nov-09 enum: C++98 C++ enums have 3 Problems: –Implicitly convert to int Cause errors when integer is not desired. –Export the enumerators to the outer scope Cause name clashes. –Underlying type cannot be specified Cause confusion Compatibility problems, and Makes forward declaration impossible.

47. 47 24-Nov-09 enum class: scoped & strongly typed enum enum classes ("strong enums") –Are strongly typed and scoped. –Address problems of conventional enums // traditional enum enum Alert { green, yellow, election, red }; // scoped and strongly typed enum // no export of enumerator names to enclosing scope // no implicit conversion to int enum class Color { red, blue }; enum class TrafficLight { red, yellow, green };

48. 48 24-Nov-09 enum class: Scoped Examples Traditional enums work as usual, but one can now optionally qualify with the enum name. Alert a = 7; // error (as ever in C++) Color c = 7; // error: no int->Color conversion int a2 = red; // ok: Alert->int conversion int a3 = Alert::red; // error in C++98; // ok in C++0x int a4 = blue; // error: blue not in scope int a5 = Color::blue; // error: not Color->int // conversion Color a6 = Color::blue; // ok

49. 49 24-Nov-09 enum class: Underlying Type Specify the underlying type –Simpler interoperability and –Guaranteed sizes. The underlying type must be –One of the signed or unsigned integer types –The default is int.

50. 50 24-Nov-09 enum class: Underlying Type Examples: // compact representation enum class Color : char { red, blue }; // by default, the underlying type is int enum class TrafficLight { red, yellow, green }; // how big is an E? ("implementation defined") enum E { E1 = 1, E2 = 2, Ebig = 0xFFFFFFF0U }; // now we can be specific enum EE : unsigned long { EE1 = 1, EE2 = 2, EEbig = 0xFFFFFFF0U };

51. 51 24-Nov-09 enum class: Forward Declaration // (forward) declaration enum class Color_code : char; // use of forward declaration void foobar(Color_code* p); //... // definition enum class Color_code : char { red, yellow, green, blue };

52. 52 24-Nov-09 enum class: Use in Standard Library For mapping systems specific error codes: –enum class errc; For pointer safety indicators: –enum class pointer_safety { relaxed, preferred, strict }; For I/O stream errors: –enum class io_errc { stream = 1 }; For asynchronous communications error handling: –enum class future_errc { broken_promise, future_already_retrieved, promise_already_satisfied }; Several of these have operators, such as == defined.

53. 53 24-Nov-09 Constant Expression

54. 54 24-Nov-09 constexpr: generalized and guaranteed constant expression The constexpr mechanism –provides more general constant expressions –allows constant expressions involving user- defined types –provides a way to guarantee that an initialization is done at compile time

55. 55 24-Nov-09 constexpr Function must be of a simple form –Evaluated at compile time if given constant expressions arguments. enum Flags { good=0, fail=1, bad=2, eof=4 }; constexpr int operator|(Flags f1, Flags f2) { return Flags(int(f1)|int(f2)); } void f(Flags x) { switch (x) { case bad: /*... */ break; case eof: /*... */ break; case bad|eof:/*... */ break; default: /*... */ break; }

56. 56 24-Nov-09 constexpr constexpr in front of a variable definition –requires expression to be evaluated at compile time and –implies const constexpr int x1 = bad|eof; // ok void f(Flags f3) { constexpr int x2 = bad|f3; // error: // can't evaluate // at compile time int x3 = bad|f3; // ok }

57. 57 24-Nov-09 constexpr Compile-time evaluation guarantee allow global objects to be placed in read-only storage. Works for objects with constructors simple enough to be constexpr and expressions involving such objects: struct Point { int x,y; constexpr Point(int xx, int yy): x(xx), y(yy) { } }; constexpr Point origo(0,0); constexpr int z = origo.x; constexpr Point a[] = {Point(0,0), Point(1,1), Point(2,2)}; constexpr x = a[1].x; // x becomes 1

58. 58 24-Nov-09 Initializer List

59. 59 24-Nov-09 Initializer List Mechanism for accepting a {}-list is a constructor with an argument of type std::initializer_list. vector v = { 1, 2, 3.456, 99.99 }; list > languages = { {"Nygaard", "Simula"}, {"Richards", "BCPL"}, {"Ritchie", "C"} }; map,vector > years = { { {"Maurice", "Vincent", "Wilkes"}, {1913, 1945, 1951, 1967, 2000} }, { {"Martin", "Richards"}, {1982, 2003, 2007} }, { {"David", "John", "Wheeler"}, {1927, 1947, 1951, 2004} } };

60. 60 24-Nov-09 Initializer List The initializer list can be of arbitrary length, but must be homogeneous (all elements must be of a the template argument type, T, or convertible to T). void f(initializer_list ); f({1,2}); f({23,345,4567,56789}); f({}); // the empty list f{1,2}; // error: function call ( ) missing years.insert({ {"Bjarne","Stroustrup"}, {1950, 1975, 1985}});

61. 61 24-Nov-09 Initializer List A container may implement an initializer- list constructor like this: template class vector { public: vector (std::initializer_list s) // initializer-list constructor { reserve(s.size()); // get the right // amount of space uninitialized_copy(s.begin(), s.end(), elem); // initialize elements // (in elem[0:s.size())) sz = s.size(); // set vector size } //... as before... };

62. 62 24-Nov-09 Initializer List std::vector has an explicit constructor from int and an initializer-list constructor: vector v1(7); // ok: v1 has 7 elements v1 = 9; // error: no int vector vector v2 = 9; // error: no int vector void f(const vector &); f(9); // error: no int vector vector v1{7}; // ok: v1 has 1 element (7) v1 = {9}; // ok: v1 now has 1 element (9) vector v2 = {9}; // ok: v2 has 1 element (9) f({9}); // ok: f is called with { 9 }

63. 63 24-Nov-09 Initializer List std::vector … vector > vs = { vector (10), // ok: explicit construction // (10 elements) vector {10}, // ok explicit construction // (1 element, 10) 10// error: vector's constructor // is explicit };

64. 64 24-Nov-09 Initializer List A function can access the initializer_list as an immutable sequence. A constructor that takes a single argument of type std::initializer_list is called an initializer-list constructor. The standard library containers, string, and regex have initializer-list constructors Initializer-list can be used as a Range. void f(initializer_list args) { for (auto p=args.begin(); p!=args.end(); ++p) cout << *p << "\n"; }

65. 65 24-Nov-09 In–Class Member Initialization

66. 66 24-Nov-09 In-class Member Initializations In C++98, only static const members of integral types can be initialized in-class, and the initializer has to be a constant expression int var = 7; class X { static const int m1 = 7; // ok const int m2 = 7; // error: not static static int m3 = 7; // error: not const static const int m4 = var; // error: initializer not // constant expression static const string m5 = "odd";// error: not integral // type //... };

67. 67 24-Nov-09 In-class Member Initializations In C++0x, allow: To mean: class A { public: int a = 7; }; class A { public: int a; A() : a(7) {} };

68. 68 24-Nov-09 In-class Member Initializations For multiple Constructors: To mean: class A { public: A(): a(7), b(5), hash_algorithm("MD5"), s("Constructor run") {} A(int a_val) : a(a_val), b(5), hash_algorithm("MD5"), s("Constructor run") {} A(D d) : a(7), b(g(d)), hash_algorithm("MD5"), s("Constructor run") {} int a, b; private: HashingFunction hash_algorithm; // Hash std::string s; // State };

69. 69 24-Nov-09 In-class Member Initializations Simplify: To mean: class A { public: A(){} A(int a_val) : a(a_val) {} A(D d) : b(g(d)) {} int a = 7, b = 5; private: HashingFunction hash_algorithm{"MD5}; // Hash std::string s{"Constructor run}; // State };

70. 70 24-Nov-09 Uniform Initialization

71. 71 24-Nov-09 Uniform Initialization Syntax & Semantics C++98 offers context-dependent ways for initializing an object string a[] = {"foo", "bar"}; // ok: initialize array vector v = {"foo", "bar"}; // error: initializer list // for non-aggregate vector void f(string a[]); f( { "foo", " bar" } ); // syntax error: block as argument int a = 2; // "assignment style" int[] aa = { 2, 3 }; // assignment style with list complex z(1,2); // "functional style" initialization x = Ptr(y); // "functional style" for // conversion/cast/construction int a(1); // variable definition int b(); // function declaration int b(foo); // variable definition or // function declaration

72. 72 24-Nov-09 Uniform Initialization Syntax & Semantics C++0x allow {}-initializer lists for all initializations X x1 = X{1,2}; X x2 = {1,2}; // the = is optional X x3{1,2}; X* p = new X{1,2}; struct D : X { D(int x, int y) :X{x,y} { /*... */ }; }; struct S { int a[3]; S(int x, int y, int z) :a{x,y,z} { /*... */ }; // solution to old problem };

73. 73 24-Nov-09 Uniform Initialization Syntax & Semantics X{a} constructs the same value in every context (where legal) X x{a}; X* p = new X{a}; z = X{a}; // use as cast f({a}); // function argument (of type X) return {a}; // function return value // (function returning X)

74. 74 24-Nov-09 Prevent Narrowing

75. 75 24-Nov-09 Preventing Narrowing C++98 implicitly truncates. In C++0x, {} initialization doesn't narrow: int x = 7.3;// Ouch! void f(int); f(7.3); // Ouch! int x1 = {7.3}; // error: narrowing double d = 7; int x2{d}; // error: narrowing (double to int) // ok: even though 7 is an int, this is not narrowing char x3{7}; // error: double to int narrowing vector vi = { 1, 2.3, 4, 5.6 };

76. 76 24-Nov-09 for Range

77. 77 24-Nov-09 Range for statement Iterates through a "range" –STL-sequence defined by a begin() and end(). –All standard containers –std::string, –an initializer list, –an array, and –anything (like istream) for which begin() and end() are defined

78. 78 24-Nov-09 Range for statement: Examples The begin() (and end()) can be a member to be called x.begin() or a free-standing function to be called begin(x). void f(const vector & v) { for (auto x : v) cout << x << '\n'; for (auto& x : v) ++x;// use a reference to // change the value } for (const auto x : { 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34 }) cout << x << '\n';

79. 79 24-Nov-09 Delegating Constructor

80. 80 24-Nov-09 Delegating Constructors In C++98, two constructors do the same thing with repeat or call of "init() function." class X { int a; validate(int x) { if (0<x && x<=max) a=x; else throw bad_X(x); } public: X(int x) { validate(x); } X() { validate(42); } X(string s) { int x = lexical_cast (s); validate(x); } //... };

81. 81 24-Nov-09 Delegating Constructors In C++0x, define one constructor in terms of another: class X { int a; public: X(int x) { if (0<x && x<=max) a=x; else throw bad_X(x); } X() :X{42} { } X(string s) :X{lexical_cast (s)} { } //... };

82. 82 24-Nov-09 Inherited Constructor

83. 83 24-Nov-09 Inherited Constructors In C++98, we can "lift" a set of overloaded functions from a base class to derived class: Lifting does not work for Constructors struct B { void f(double); }; struct D : B { void f(int); }; B b; b.f(4.5); // fine D d; d.f(4.5); // calls D::f(int) with argument 4! struct B { void f(double); }; struct D : B { using B::f; // bring all f()s from B into scope void f(int); // add a new f() }; B b; b.f(4.5); // fine D d; d.f(4.5); // fine: calls D::f(double) // which is B::f(double)

84. 84 24-Nov-09 Inherited Constructors class Base { Base(int); }; class Derived : public Base { public: using Base::f;// lift Base's f to Derived's scope // -- works in C++98 void f(char);// provide a new f void f(int);// prefer this f to Base::f(int) using Base::Base;// lift Bases constrs to Derived's // scope -- C++0x only Derived(char); // provide a new constructor Derived(int); // prefer this constructor to // Base::Base(int) //... };

85. 85 24-Nov-09 Inherited Constructors: Initialization Slip Use Member Intializer struct B1 { B1(int) { } }; struct D1 : B1 { using B1::B1;// implicitly declares D1(int) int x; }; void test() { D1 d(6);// Oops: d.x is not initialized D1 e; // error: No default constructor } struct B1 { B1(int) { } }; struct D1 : B1 { using B1::B1;// implicitly declares D1(int) int x{0}; // x is initialized }; void test() { D1 d(6);// d.x is 0 }

86. 86 24-Nov-09 nullptr

87. 87 24-Nov-09 nullptr: A null pointer literal nullptr –is a reserved word. –is a literal, just like 1 and true. –address of nullptr itself can-not be taken (No memory) –designates a constant rvalue of type decltype(nullptr) or nullptr_t. typedef decltype(nullptr) nullptr_t; nullptr_t –is not a reserved word. It is defined in. –is a POD type –is convertible to both a pointer type and a pointer-to-member type. –has equivalent objects with identical behavior that may differ in cv-qualification may differ in being rvalues or lvalues may be be copied and thrown.

88. 88 24-Nov-09 nullptr: Example char* p = nullptr; int* q = nullptr; char* p2 = 0; // 0 still works and p==p2 void f(int); void f(char*); f(0); // call f(int) f(nullptr); // call f(char*) void g(int); g(nullptr); // error: nullptr is not an int int i = nullptr; // error nullptr is not an int if(n2 == 0); // evaluates to true if(n2 == nullptr); // error if(nullptr); // error, no conversion to bool if(nullptr == 0); // error

89. 89 24-Nov-09 Standard Library

90. 90 24-Nov-09 References 1.ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 - The C++ Standards Committee. http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/ 2.C++0x FAQ: by Bjarne Stroustrup. www.research.att.com/~bs/C++0xFAQ.html 3.C++0x Support in GCC: gcc.gnu.org/projects/cxx0x.html 4.C++0x Support in Visual C++: Visual Studio 2010 Beta 2. http://blogs.msdn.com/somasegar/archive/2009/10/19/announcing- visual-studio-2010-and-net-fx-4-beta-2.aspx (19-Oct-09) 5.C++0x. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C++0x 6.C++0x: The Dawning of a New Standard: (Aug-09) www.devx.com/SpecialReports/Door/38865 - Overview: C++ Gets an Overhaul, Easier C++: An Introduction to Concepts, Simpler Multithreading in C++0x, The State of the Language: An Interview with Bjarne Stroustrup & Timeline: C++ in Retrospect: 7.C++0x - An Overview. http://csclub.uwaterloo.ca/media/C++0x%20- %20An%20Overview.html

91. 91 24-Nov-09 Credit Santanu Sinha –Trying out examples in GCC

92. 92 24-Nov-09 Thank You