1. Diagnosis of ARF in children
Welcome to Rheumatic Heart Disease Australia’s Health Provider Education series. Educational resources developed for clinicians by clinicians.
Rheumatic Heart Disease Australia is an initiative of Baker IDI, James Cook University, and Menzies School of Health Research and is supported by the Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing.
This module will discuss the paediatric diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever with a focus on the Australian perspective.

2. Speakers Alan Ruben FRACP, FAFPHM
Paediatrician and Public Health Physician, Apunipima Cape York Health Council, Cairns and Hinterland Health Service District, Queensland Health.
Alan is a paediatrician and public health physician who has worked in Aboriginal health for over 20 years.
Ben Reeves MBBS, FRACP Paediatric cardiologist, Cairns and Hinterland Health Service District, Queensland Health.
Ben is a paediatric cardiologist based in Cairns, providing outreach paediatric cardiology services to Cape York and the Torres Strait.
This presentation was developed with the assistance of Alan Ruben, and Ben Reeves, who are both based in Cairns in far northern Queensland, Australia. Both specialists have a longstanding interest in acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease, and remote health care delivery.
Alan is a paediatrician and public health physician who has worked in Aboriginal Health for over 20 years. He has also spent a significant amount of time in the Pacific, working with WHO, UNICEF and AusAID.
Ben is a paediatric cardiologist, providing outreach paediatric cardiology services to Cape York and the Torres Strait Islands. His interest in rheumatic heart disease began in Fiji, where he worked for two years as a general paediatrician before completing his paediatric cardiology training at the Mater Children’s hospital in Brisbane.
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3. Learning objectives Appreciate the pathway to ARF and then RHD
Recognize who is at risk for ARF/RHD
Understand the Jones criteria used for diagnosis
Present the recommended investigations
Outline current management guidelines
The learning objectives of this presentation are to provide an understanding of the sequence of events leading to acute rheumatic fever and subsequently rheumatic heart disease.
You will learn how to recognize those most at risk for acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease, and gain an understanding of the Jones criteria used for diagnosis.
The recommended investigations and current treatment guidelines will be outlined.
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4. Take home messages
Incidence in Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people amongst the highest in the world
Predominantly affects children aged 5 to 15
Largely affects disadvantaged populations
High index of suspicion in high risk populations
Diagnosis needs clinical criteria and investigation results
Diagnosis often requires hospital admission
The take home messages include that the incidence of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is amongst the highest recorded in the world.
Acute rheumatic fever predominantly affects children from disadvantaged populations aged between 5 to 15 years.
A high index of suspicion is needed for those at greatest risk of disease, which means people living in high incidence populations.
Rheumatic fever diagnosis demands that clinical criteria be met, and that relevant investigation results are compatible.
Because the diagnosis can be complex, inpatient admission is often required.
November 2012

5. Abbreviations AR aortic regurgitation ARF acute rheumatic fever BPG
benzathine penicillin G
CRP
C-reactive protein
ESR
erythrocyte sedimentation rate
GAS
group A beta-haemolytic streptococcus MR
mitral regurgitation
RHD
rheumatic heart disease
Before proceeding further, it is worthwhile defining the terms and abbreviations that will used during this presentation.
AR is used for aortic regurgitation. This is when there is a backward flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle, because the aortic valve does not close properly.
Acute rheumatic fever is often termed ARF. This is a complication of Group A streptococcal infection, a common bacteria found in the throat and on the skin. In susceptible individuals, and particularly children, immune mimicry results in inappropriate cross reactivity between streptococcal and patient tissue antigens associated with joints, skin, brain and, most importantly here, the heart.
BPG, or benzathine penicillin G, remains the most effective antibiotic for both the prevention and management of GAS pharyngitis and ARF.
CRP is C-reactive protein, an acute phase protein produced by the liver during an inflammatory reaction.
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate, or ESR, is the rate at which red blood cells settle. It is a non-specific measure of inflammation.
Group A beta haemolytic streptococcus, otherwise known as ‘G’ ‘A’ ‘S’ or GAS, causes approximately twenty to forty per cent of symptomatic pharyngitis or sore throat. GAS-related pharyngitis is thought to be the major driver of ARF.
Mitral regurgitation, or MR, occurs when blood leaks back from the left ventricle into the left atrium due to incomplete closure of the mitral valve
Rheumatic heart disease, or RHD, is the chronic sequelae of recurrent episodes of ARF. Recurrent carditis with valve inflammation leads to scarring, distortion and eventual valve dysfunction.
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6. More information – Guidelines
For those who would like more information regarding the prevention, diagnosis and management of ARF and RHD, this can be found in the Australian Guidelines. These guidelines were substantially updated and revised in 2012, and are available at the RHD Australia website.
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7. More information – Quick reference
There is also a Quick Reference Guide which can be a useful tool for busy clinicians, population health staff and managers.
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8. More information – other modules
Further education modules are available at the RHD Australia Health Provider Education website.
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9. ARF: some basics 3-6% of any population susceptible
Incidence and prevalence in females >males
ARF/RHD can run in families
Specific genetic markers have been identified
There is no racial predisposition
Let’s commence by highlighting a few basic facts regarding acute rheumatic fever.
Approximately 3 to 6% of any population is susceptible to ARF, with the incidence and prevalence in females greater than in males.
ARF and rheumatic heart disease can run in families, and although specific genetic markers have been identified, there is no racial predisposition to disease.
Thus the higher incidence of ARF in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is not due to an inherently higher susceptibility to ARF but rather a greater exposure to GAS infection.
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10. Australian setting Amongst the highest rates in the world
ARF commonest in remote and disadvantaged areas
Some Australian medical staff unfamiliar with ARF
So what in particular ought we be concerned about in the Australian setting? Australian rates are amongst the highest recorded in the world, with ARF most frequently occurring in remote and disadvantaged areas and populations.
Because ARF has largely disappeared in Australian urban areas, Australian health care providers are often unfamiliar with the diagnosis, treatment and management of this condition.
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11. Environment
If Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are not inherently more susceptible to ARF, then what is driving this greater burden of disease?
Improved living standards resulted in reduced transmission of GAS in the early 20th century, and almost the disappearance of ARF and RHD in the high income and industrialised world. It is a different story in low and middle income nations, where exposure to GAS infection remains high, and surveillance, diagnosis, secondary prophylaxis and treatment remain under resourced.
A greater risk of ARF is associated with overcrowding, poor sanitation, and other conditions that may easily result in the rapid transmission or multiple exposures to GAS.
For more information on the primary and primordial prevention of ARF and RHD, please refer to the module in this health provider education series.
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12. Risk factors Established clear link with poverty
household overcrowding
poor sanitation
housing quality and appropriateness
educational disadvantage
Limited access to health services
variability of health infrastructure and follow up
Geographically remote
So what might be some of the underlying social and environmental determinants driving greater exposure to GAS?.
History has taught us that ARF has a clear link with poverty, household overcrowding, poor sanitation, housing quality and appropriateness, and educational disadvantage.
Almost half of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander households earn an income in the bottom quarter of the national average. The average weekly household income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is only 62% that of non-Indigenous Australians.
Remoteness is also another driving of disadvantage. This reflects the distance people have to travel to obtain services. 68% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples live outside major cities, with 43% in regional areas, 9% in remote, and 15% in very remote areas.
The combination of economic disadvantage and remoteness in turn translates to environmental disadvantage with housing quality and household overcrowding being more common for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Australian communities at greatest risk of this inter-related nexus of remoteness, poverty and environmental disadvantage include those in remote northern and Central Australia ,extending from the Torres Strait adjacent to Papua New Guinea through to the desert regions of southern WA.
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13. Exaggerated immune response
Acute rheumatic fever – ARF
Chorea
Carditis
GAS pharyngitis
Exaggerated immune response
So how does ARF develop? This flowchart provides a graphic depiction of the disease process. Pharyngitis caused by GAS infection results in an exaggerated immune response in susceptible individuals, causing any or all of the symptoms listed here. Chorea, carditis, arthritis and fever.
Recognition and diagnosis of ARF can reduce progression to RHD through the use of prophylactic antibiotics which prevent further episodes of ARF.
A high level of suspicion in target populations will facilitate early diagnosis and commencement of prophylaxis.
There is clear evidence that prophylaxis with benzathine penicillin reduces GAS infections, prevents recurrent attacks of ARF, and progressive RHD.
Arthritis
Fever
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14. ARF progression * Valve damage is cumulative and silent
How does ARF progress to rheumatic heart disease?
Repeated episodes of ARF and recurrent heart inflammation eventually result in scarring and permanent damage to heart valves.
These damaged heart valves do not function properly, and can eventually lead to stroke, heart infection, called endocarditis, and heart failure.
ARF and RHD are a preventable cause of disability and early death, and are associated with an increased need for surgical heart and other interventions.
Rheumatic heart disease (RHD)
Cardiac failure, early death
ARF recurs - often many times
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15. Jones criteria So how do we accurately diagnose acute rheumatic fever?
ARF diagnosis is based on the modified Jones criteria, seen here as presented in the Australian guideline for the prevention, diagnosis and management of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. These criteria have been modified and are slightly different in high risk and low risk populations, with the changes in high risk populations being made to increase sensitivity and avoid under-diagnosis.
They rely on looking for and confirming a combination of major and minor criteria. The diagnosis of an initial episode of ARF requires two major manifestations, or one major and two minor manifestations, with evidence of recent GAS infection.
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16. Diagnosis and GAS
Definite initial or recurrent ARF diagnosis requires:
2 major plus evidence GAS infection
1 major plus 2 minor plus evidence of GAS infection
Throat swab
ASOT
Anti DNAse B
No other probable diagnosis
As a confirmed diagnosis of both initial and recurrent ARF requires evidence of recent GAS infection, let’s look at how that is confirmed. Remember in all cases of ARF, except those associated with chorea, evidence of recent GAS infection is essential.
Evidence can be demonstrated by a positive throat swab OR serological or antibody evidence of exposure to GAS based on a raised ASOT or anti-DNAse.
If serology is negative AND ARF continues to be suspected, and if an alternate diagnosis is not made, serology should be repeated after two weeks, because an increase in titer can be delayed.
Since antibodies directed at GAS are produced as a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, there is no normal value, and the presence of these antibodies only indicates an exposure to GAS. Many people exposed to GAS remain asymptomatic, so the mere presence of positive GAS serology does not in itself indicate ARF.
Once evidence of recent GAS infection is confirmed, diagnosis of an initial episode of ARF relies on also having 2 major criteria or 1 major and 2 minor criteria, with no other probable diagnosis.
It is worthwhile to note the latest Australian guidelines have included additional categories and requirements for recurrent ARF and probable ARF.
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17. Major manifestations
This chart from the Australian Guidelines summarises and describes the major manifestations required for the diagnosis of ARF in a high risk population.
They are arthritis, polyarthralgia, Sydenham’s Chorea, carditis, subcutaneous nodules and erythema marginatum. As we progress through this module, a more detailed description will be provided for each of these major manifestations.
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18. Polyarthritis or aseptic mono-arthritis or polyarthralgia
Major manifestations
High risk groups
Polyarthritis or aseptic mono-arthritis or polyarthralgia
Carditis (including subclinical evidence of rheumatic valvulitis on echocardiogram)
Chorea
Erythema marginatum
Subcutaneous nodules
Low Risk groups
Polyarthritis
Carditis
Chorea
Let’s look at high risk groups, and start with polyarthritis, aseptic mono-arthritis and polyarthralgia.
Erythema marginatum
Subcutaneous nodules
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19. Arthritis Monoarthritis present in 17% of ARF presentations
Migratory asymmetric polyarthritis
Affects peripheral large joints
Often intense pain – will not tolerate passive movement
Limited duration: 2 days to 3 weeks
Dramatic response to salicylates
rapid response assists diagnosis
Arthritis and arthralgia are the most common presentations of ARF in children.
Classically, the arthritis is a polyarthritis, usually affecting peripheral large joints, with joints in the lower limbs affected more frequently than the upper limbs. The polyarthritis is often extremely painful, with movement avoided and passive movement not tolerated. Sometimes, other significant signs of inflammation are absent.
Usually asymmetrical and migratory, resolution in one joint is often followed by reappearance in another shortly afterwards. When this happens in an adjacent joint, the arthritis appears to be migrating. Sometimes however the arthritis is additive.
The arthritis is usually of limited duration, two days to 3 weeks, although it can occasionally last longer.
Treatment with aspirin or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs results in dramatic improvement, sometimes with relief of symptoms occurring overnight, and definitely within 2 to 3 days. This rapid response can assist with diagnosis.
If anti-inflammatory treatment is ceased, arthritis may recur, generally within one to 2 months of the original episode.
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20. Can a monarthritis be ARF?
In high risk populations:
aseptic monoarthritis can be a major manifestation
monoarthritis often associated with carditis
if joint aspirate sterile, prior to treatment for septic arthritis, investigate for ARF
In high risk populations, a monoarthritis can be considered as a major manifestation of ARF, as it is often associated with carditis.
One important point to remember is that aseptic monoarthritis should always be investigated and followed up as possible ARF even if preemptive antibiotic treatment is given.
Collaboration between physicians and orthopaedic surgeons is valuable in this setting.
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21. Polyarthralgia A major criteria ONLY in high risk populations:
Multiple painful joints
Can be migratory
Unlike arthritis lacks:
Effusions
Heat
Morning stiffness
Polyarthralgia can be less dramatic than the classical polyarthritis and monoarthritis seen in ARF. In high risk populations the modified Australian Jones criteria for ARF classify this as a major manifestation whilst in other populations in remains a minor manifestation of ARF.
The differentiation of arthralgia from arthritis is clinical and is based on painful joints without clinical signs such as effusions and heat, along with no history of morning stiffness.
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22. Carditis Can involve all layers of the heart
Pericardium – can cause effusions
Myocardium – affects heart function and conduction
Endocardium – the classic valve lesions
MR then AR most common lesions
Right sided valves rarely involved
Stenosis is a late finding
Let’s now describe the second major manifestation, carditis.
Carditis can involve all the layers of the heart. If the pericardium is affected, pericardial effusions can result.
Heart function and conduction will be impacted if the myocardium is involved.
The classic valvular lesions seen ARF are caused when the endocardium is involved, with the most common being mitral regurgitation or MR and then aortic regurgitation or AR.
The right sided heart valves, the tricuspid and pulmonary valves are rarely involved.
It is important to remember that subclinical carditis, that is heart valve inflammation demonstrated on echocardiography without an associated murmur, is now classified as a major criteria in the diagnosis of ARF in high risk populations
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23. Carditis: investigations
Early echocardiography essential
repeated at 2 to 6 weeks
Chest x-ray
Electrocardiogram
So what are the recommended investigations if carditis is suspected?
Echocardiography is key.
It can distinguish innocent murmurs and detect subclinical carditis. However it is often difficult to access echo services, especially in remote areas with high incidence of ARF and this is one reason why cases of suspected ARF should be admitted to hospital.
Determining valvular disease can be difficult and often requires follow-up echocardiogram examination, as initial findings may be normal with changes only appearing after 2 to 6 weeks.
Carditis does not always occur in ARF and incidence varies between 30 to 80%.
Because the changes of carditis can be delayed, it is important that all patients with suspected ARF have follow-up echocardiography.
Remember a normal echocardiogram does not exclude a diagnosis of ARF.
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24. Carditis: treatment Often requires inpatient bed rest and care if :
moderate/severe carditis suspected by clinical findings
Consider steroids for severe carditis
If signs of heart failure or cardiomegaly
consider diuretics and ACE inhibitors
An what about the management of acute ARF-related carditis?
The key is admission to hospital, close observations and investigation, and consideration of bed rest along with diuretics and ACE inhibitors if heart failure develops. Steroids may be considered in myocarditis with heart failure but usually heart failure in this setting is due to valve dysfunction.
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25. Sydenham’s chorea Rapid, uncoordinated jerking movements
Primarily the face, feet and hands
Female to male ratio of 2:1
Occurs up to 6 months after acute infection
Mostly children, 5 to 13 years
“Milkmaids” sign
Tongue fasciculations
Emotional lability
We will move on to discuss the next major manifestation, Sydenham's chorea.
This is a disease characterized by rapid, uncoordinated jerking movements affecting primarily the face, feet and hands. Sydenham's chorea results from childhood infection with GAS and is reported to occur in 20-30% of patients with ARF. The disease is usually latent, occurring up to 6 months after the acute infection, but may occasionally be the presenting symptom of acute rheumatic fever. Sydenham's Chorea is more common in females than males and most patients are younger than 18 years of age. Adult onset of Sydenham's Chorea is comparatively rare and most of the adult cases are associated with exacerbation of chorea following childhood Sydenham's Chorea.
Sydenham's chorea is characterized by the acute onset (sometimes a few hours) of neurologic symptoms, classically chorea, usually affecting all limbs. Other neurologic symptoms include behavior change, dysarthria, gait disturbance, loss of fine and gross motor control with resultant deterioration of handwriting, headache, slowed cognition, facial grimacing, fidgetiness and hypotonia. Also, there may be tongue fasciculations ("bag of worms"), and a "milk maids sign", which is a relapsing grip demonstrated by alternate increases and decreases in tension, as if hand milking.
Emotional changes, such as easy crying or inappropriate laughing, may precede the development of chorea and, in some cases, deteriorating school performance can be the initial concern.
The hypotonia may be severe and the extremities may appear paralysed. The cranial nerves are not involved, but speech often is abnormal and is described as "jerky" with sudden changes in pitch and loudness
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26. Erythema marginatum Rare finding
reported in less than 2% Australian Aboriginals
difficult to see on dark skin
Presence of rash diagnostic of ARF
Pale center and darker margins
Blanch under pressure
Circular snake like pattern
Occurs on trunk and extremities
Not itchy or painful
Erythema marginatum is the next major manifestation, and an example of the rash can be seen here. The rash is difficult to see on dark skin, and will blanch under pressure. This is a rare finding, reported in less than 2% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients with ARF. It is an erythematous rash with a pale centre and a darker margin. It has a circular pattern and predominantly occurs on trunk and extremities, and is neither itchy nor painful.
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27. Subcutaneous nodules Rare, only seen in 2% cases
Highly specific of ARF
Strongly associated with carditis
Round firm and freely mobile
0.5 to 2.0 cm in diameter
Appear 1 to 2 weeks after symptom onset
Occur in crops of up to 12
over elbows knees, wrists, ankles, achilles tendons, occiput, and posterior spinal processes
The final major manifestation that need description is subcutaneous nodules.
Subcutaneous nodules are also rare but highly specific for ARF and strongly associated with carditis. The nodules are round, firm, and freely mobile, with a diameter of half to 2 cm. They occur predominantly over pressure areas including the extensor surface of joints, in particular the elbows, knees and ankles. They can also occur over the head and posterior spinal processes.
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28. Polyarthralgia or aseptic monoarthritis
Minor manifestations
High risk groups
Monoarthralgia
Fever
ESR≥30 mm/h or CRP ≥30 mg/L
ECG changes
Low Risk groups
Polyarthralgia or aseptic monoarthritis
Let’s now discuss the minor manifestations for ARF diagnosis. In high-risk groups these are monoarthralgia, or joint pain, fever, raised inflammatory markers and ECG evidence of heart block.
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29. Fever Temperature greater than 38C
In the absence of fever documentation
reliable history if anti-inflammatory therapy given
already given
Fever can be either documented and greater than 38 degrees Celsius, or a reliable history of fever if anti-inflammatory therapy has been given, or in the absence of a documented fever. It is important that the temperature is measured and recorded at the time of initial presentation.
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30. ESR & CRP Repeat serology 10 to 14 days if not confirmatory
To satisfy minor criteria:
serum CRP ≥30mg/L
ESR ≥30mm/hr
Elevated WBC insensitive marker for ARF
Inflammatory markers are non-specific indicators for ARF.
Nonetheless ESR and CRP elevations are considered minor manifestations, with the criteria requiring that either of these be 30 or greater.
The CRP tends to rise and fall more quickly than ESR., so that performing both can be useful. CRP is often easier to perform in a remote setting.
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31. ECG If ARF suspected always ECG Check P-R interval
Normal 0.16 sec if 3 to 12 years old
If prolonged
repeat ECG in 1 to 2 months
If P-R interval returns to normal:
ARF more likely
An ECG should always be performed when ARF is suspected. A prolonged PR interval is the most common manifestation, although 2nd degree and complete heart block can also occur.
The normal PR interval for a 3 to 12 year old is 0.16 of a second, and for 12 to 16 year old is 0.18 of a second.
If the PR interval is prolonged, repeat the ECG after 1 to 2 months. The changes are more likely to be related to ARF if the ECG returns to normal, and this therefore increases the probability of diagnosis.
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32. Diagnosis: key investigations
Investigations are important both to confirm a diagnosis of ARF and for diagnosis of other conditions which may be mistaken for ARF
Throat swab, antistreptococcal serology (ASOT and antiDNAse), white cell count, differential, ESR, CRP, ECG and echocardiogram are always necessary.
If heart failure is suspected a chest x-ray may be useful both to confirm pulmonary oedema and to rule out other causes of shortness of breath, including pneumonia.
If infective endocarditis or septic arthritis is considered a possibility , multiple sets of blood cultures should be taken prior to the commencement of antibiotics.
Any patient from a high risk population presenting with an acute monoarthritis should be considered to have possible septic arthritis, and a joint aspirate should be performed. In children this may be a difficult and expert advice will assist with this decision.
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33. Differential diagnosis
Let’s now consider the differential diagnosis of ARF.
This chart from the Australian guidelines outlines the differential diagnosis of the three most common major manifestations of acute rheumatic fever, polyarthritis with fever, carditis and chorea. Some of the diseases listed are extremely rare, and some, such as Lyme disease, do not occur in Australia.
There are only a few important conditions which need to be considered in most patients presenting with possible ARF. These include septic arthritis and infective endocarditis, both of which have high levels of associated morbidity if missed.
Gout and pseuodogout usually occur in older adults and leukaemia and lymphoma presenting with polyarthritis and fever is very uncommon. Conditions such as disseminated gonococcal infection however, are not uncommon especially in sexually active adolescents.
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34. Diagnosis key points ARF remains a difficult diagnosis
requires recommended tests to be performed
High index of suspicion for populations at greatest risk
Cardiology opinion recommended for suspected ARF
In high risk populations also consider ARF if:
child < 5 years of age presents with arthritis
Monoarthritis is a common presentation
Simple falls rarely cause joint effusions
Hospital admission recommended for initial presentations
So what are the key diagnostic points?
ARF can be difficult to diagnose, as there are multiple, and sometimes repeated tests recommended for confirmation.
A high index of suspicion is needed in high risk populations to avoid possible missed diagnosis.
Specialist paediatrician input can be helpful if you suspect ARF.
Consider the possibility of ARF in any child from a high risk population presenting with arthritis, especially if more than 5 years of age.
Keep in mind that monoarthritis is a common presentation of ARF in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations.
Remember that simple falls rarely cause joint effusions.
And finally admission to hospital is recommended for all initial presentations, in order to confirm diagnosis, assess severity of disease and develop a treatment plan.
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35. Probable ARF
Unfortunately a definite diagnosis of ARF cannot be made in all cases even though no alternate diagnosis is reached.
In this case a diagnosis of probable ARF should be considered.
The Australian guidelines provide a reference flowchart for the management and follow up of probable ARF and subdivides this group into Uncertain and Highly Suspected groups. It should be noted that secondary prophylaxis is recommended for both these groups.
A diagnosis of probable ARF can be made when a patient has a clinical presentation compatible with ARF but falls short of meeting the diagnostic criteria by either one major or one minor manifestation, or in the absence of definitive GAS serology. In this case close follow-up is essential both to determine a definite episode of ARF, and to ensure that another condition is not being missed.
The Australian guidelines have also made the criteria for diagnosing a recurrent episode of ARF more sensitive by allowing this diagnosis to be made even if no major and only three minor criteria are met.
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36. ARF diagnosis and management
First requires diagnosis then secondary prophylaxis
Inpatient assessment recommended
Specialist review for ongoing management
Bed rest
NSAIDs
Initial then follow up echocardiography
Chest x-ray
If heart failure: ACE inhibitors, diuretics
Consider steroids for carditis
We will now conclude by recapping the principles of diagnosis and management of ARF in children and adolescents.
Any effective treatment first requires diagnosis, and then commencement of secondary prophylaxis.
Remember that a diagnosis of probable ARF also warrant prophylaxis and close follow-up.
Hospitalisation is generally necessary for a number of reasons. First to complete the recommended tests and investigations, second to access specialist opinion and review, and third to arrange and coordinate an appropriate treatment plan.
Early specialist input is helpful to ensure alternate diagnoses are considered and to facilitate ongoing follow-up and management.
Bed rest and aspirin or NSAIDs may be required.
Initial and follow up echocardiography, is important.
Medical management with ACE inhibitors and diuretics may be needed in the setting of heart failure and severe myocarditis may benefit with commencement of steroids.
Finally chorea will often settle spontaneously but if troublesome should prompt specialist input.
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37. Principles of secondary prevention
Secondary prevention first requires the diagnosis of ARF/RHD
Long term antimicrobial prophylaxis prevents recurrent ARF
but significant challenges in service delivery
Success requires:
register-based program
effective recall system
functioning primary health care service
As we conclude, it’s useful to cover the basic principles of secondary prevention. For more information on secondary prevention please see the appropriate module in this health provider education series.
Secondary prevention first requires the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever and/or rheumatic heart disease.
Once the diagnosis has been made, the person must be given long term antimicrobial or antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent recurrent episodes of acute rheumatic fever, and associated valve inflammation which can progress to rheumatic heart disease.
There are significant challenges in the delivery of antimicrobial prophylaxis, and successful delivery requires a register based secondary prevention program, effective recall systems, and a functioning primary health care service.
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38. Take home messages
Incidence in Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people amongst the highest in the world
Predominantly affects children aged 5 to 15
Largely affects disadvantaged populations
High index of suspicion in high risk populations
Diagnosis needs clinical criteria and investigation results
Diagnosis often requires hospital admission
In closing, let’s revisit our take home messages:
Remember the incidence of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is amongst the highest recorded in the world.
Acute rheumatic fever predominantly affects children from disadvantaged populations between 5 to 15 years of age.
A high index of suspicion is needed for those at greatest risk of disease, which means people living in high incidence populations.
Rheumatic fever diagnosis demands that clinical criteria be met, and that relevant investigation results are compatible.
Because the diagnosis can be complex, inpatient admission is often required.
November 2012

39. More?
If you would like to know more about ARF and RHD please refer to the new Australian guidelines. Further education modules are available at the RHD Australia Health Provider Education website.
November 2012

40. More? Register for… Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
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Additional assessment items for training providers
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41. How’d you go? Test your knowledge with a brief self-assessment quiz
Finally for those of you who would like to test your knowledge regarding the information presented in this module, please go to the Brief Self-Assessment Quiz at the link provided on this website.
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42. Diagnosis of ARF in children
Welcome to Rheumatic Heart Disease Australia’s Health Provider Education series. Educational resources developed for clinicians by clinicians.
Rheumatic Heart Disease Australia is an initiative of Baker IDI, James Cook University, and Menzies School of Health Research and is supported by the Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing.
This module will discuss the paediatric diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever with a focus on the Australian perspective.