1. Chapter 3 Contrasting Cultural Values

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Topics
Semantic Differences
Attribution and Perception
Attitudes Toward Women
Work Attitudes
Attitudes Toward Ethics
Religious Influences
Individualism and Collectivism
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What are Values?
The social principles, goals, or standards accepted by persons in a culture.
They are learned by contacts with the family, teachers, and religious leaders.
The media also may influence one’s value system.
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U.S. Culture
Ethnic Group
Census Projected
69% 65% White Americans
12% 13% African Americans
3% 4% Asian Americans
12% 15% Hispanic Americans
4% 3% Other Americans
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5. Cultural Contrasts in Values
Americans Japanese Arabs
1. Freedom Belonging Family security
2. Independence Group harmony Family harmony
3. Self-reliance Collectivism Parental guidance
4. Equality Age/Seniority Age
5. Individualism Group consensus Authority
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Semantic Differences
Semantics - the study of the meaning of words; involves the way behavior is influenced by words and nonverbal means of communication.
Example: A U.S. American, while traveling in Bolivia, observed that drivers rarely stopped at the red octagonal sign with the word “alto,” the Spanish word for “stop.” A local Bolivian explained that in that country, the stop sign is more a recommendation than a traffic law.
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7. Attribution and Perception
Attribution - the ability to look at social behavior from another culture’s view
Attribution training - involves making people aware of their own cultural context and how it differs from that of the host country
Perception - the learned meaning of sensory images
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8. Attribution and Perception
Uncertainty-reduction theory - “involves the creation of proactive predictions and retroactive explanations about our own and others’ behavior, beliefs, and attitudes” (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomy, 1988, p. 22).
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9. Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations.
Creates uncertainty
Creates anxiety
Learned behaviors
Reinforced by family, school, and government
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10. Uncertainty Avoidance
High uncertainty avoidance cultures
Latin America
Latin Europe
Japan
South Korea
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11. Uncertainty Avoidance
Countries with low or weak uncertainty avoidance
U.S. A.
India
United Kingdom
Denmark
Singapore
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12. Differences Between Weak/Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Societies
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
Citizen protest acceptable
Civil servants positive toward political process
Positive attitudes toward young people
One group’s truth should not be imposed on others
Human rights: nobody should be persecuted for their beliefs
Scientific opponents can be personal friends
Citizen protest should be repressed
Civil servants negative toward political process
Negative attitudes toward young people
There is only one truth - ours imposed on others
Religious, political, ideological fundamentalism and intolerance
Scientific opponents cannot be personal friends
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13. GLOBE Uncertainty Avoidance
Defined as tendency towards orderliness, consistency, structure, and regulation
Related to societal, economic, and organizational values
Higher values found with higher team orientation, humane orientation, and self-protective leadership
Lower values found with lower participative and charismatic leadership values
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14. Attitudes Toward Women
Influenced by cultural roots
U.S. women are supposed to have the same rights as men
Kenya women are considered subordinate to men.
Gender differences in the U.S. workplace are de-emphasized--women are accepted at higher levels in government and in many corporations.
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15. Attitudes Toward Women
U.S. women have taken two-thirds of new jobs created; they are starting new businesses at twice the rate of men.
In France, one-fifth of small businesses are owned by women; in Canada, the rate is one-third.
The U.S. and Canada lead the world in the number of women in executive positions; Northern and Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand also have high numbers of women managers.
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16. Percentage of Women in Top Management Positions
United States 23%
Australia 22%
France 21%
Germany 12%
Japan %
United Kingdom 19%
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Work Attitudes
Work ethic - hard work is applauded and rewarded; failure to work is viewed negatively.
U.S. persons value work
U.S. senior-level executives work 56 hours per week.
Executives take 14 days of vacation a year.
European persons work
36 to 41 hours per week.
Take 4 to 6 weeks of vacation a year.
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2007 Weekly Hours Worked
Country Weekly Working Hours
Singapore
China
India
South Korea
Mexico
Japan
United States
Switzerland
The Netherlands
Germany
New Zealand
France
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19. Cultural Attitudes Toward Work
Europeans
Relaxed
Vacation during month of August
D o not work weekends or holidays - the French take longer vacations than any other country.
Australians
Value free time
Value short work week
Japanese
Work Monday through Friday, often 18 hours a day
Work until their boss leaves
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20. Attitudes Toward Ethics
Ethical behavior means acting with integrity, honesty, competence, respect, fairness, trust, courage, and responsibility.
Ethical standards are guidelines established to convey what is perceived to be correct or incorrect behavior by most people in a society.
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21. Ethics: The Four-Way Test
Is it the truth?
Is it fair to all concerned?
Will it build goodwill and better friendships?
Will it be beneficial to all concerned?
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22. Personal vs. Societal Ethics
Personal ethics
may vary from person to person
often influenced by religious beliefs, cultural backgrounds, or personal experience
Societal ethics
rules of conduct shared by most people in a culture
agreed-upon standards of behavior
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23. Standards of Business Ethics are Culturally Relative
The Islamic standard of ethics is based on participating in religious ceremonies, adhering to codes of sexual behavior, and honoring one’s parents.
South Africans and the Chinese use “backdoor connections” for conducting business.
In Brazil and Spain, unorthodox accounting and taxation practices are used.
The nonsanctity of legal contracts causes problems when dealing with the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese.
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Religious Influences
In the U.S., Australia, and Europe, lifestyle and religion are separate.
In northern Africa and southern Asia, religion is a lifestyle and directly affects work.
The separation of church and state is followed in the U.S.
In Islamic countries religion affects all aspects of life.
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Religious Influences
Muslims stop work five times a day to pray.
Religion is not a significant part of life in China; the ideology of communism endorses atheism.
Non-literate religions are practiced by Native Hawaiians and by people of Zaire.
Religion affects what people eat in some countries:
beef is not eaten by Hindus
pork is eaten by neither Muslims nor Orthodox Jews
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26. Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism - attitude of valuing ourselves as separate individuals with responsibility for our own destinies and actions.
Collectivism - emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence.
The Hofstede and GLOBE studies
Hofstede uses a linear scale
GLOBE has multiple levels
In-group collectivism
Institutional collectivism
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Power Distance
Inequality within society
Power, wealth, status, and social position
Physical
Intellectual
Index measures the degree of acceptance of unequal distribution of power
Both Hofstede and GLOBE agree on this construct
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Gender Indices
Hofstede’s Masculinity and Femininity Index measures assertiveness versus modesty
GLOBE study gender egalitarianism measures roles men and women are suited for
Denmark and New Zealand most gender egalitarian; Eastern Europe and Nordic Europe
Iran and Qatar are the least gender egalitarian; Middle East, Confucian Asia, Germanic Europe
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29. Long-term versus Short-term Goals—Future Orientation
Long-term orientation
Concerned with future, perseverance, thrift, hard work, learning, openness, accountability, self-discipline
Family and work are not separated
Short-term orientation
Concerned with bottom line, control systems, respecting tradition, and preserving face
Fulfilling social obligations
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