1. 1 CHAPTER FIVE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN Compiled by Behailu Getu. behilu.getu@wku.edu.et

2. Objectives Upon the completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Distinguish between weather and climate, Explain the place to place distribution of temperature and rainfall in Ethiopia,  explain the time to time patterns of temperature and rainfall in Ethiopia, Analyze climate and its implications on biophysical and socioeconomic aspects, identify the causes, consequences and response mechanisms of climate change. 2

3. 3 5.1 The concept of weather and climate Both weather and climate are concepts about atmospheric conditions. The basic difference on them is duration and areal coverage.  Weather is atmospheric condition observed in a very specific area with a short term fluctuation, while Climate is a prolonged(30-35years) atmospheric condition observed in a relatively wider geographic area.  Weather condition likely changed hour to hour, in a daily base or weakly but climate is relatively permanent.

4. 4 Cont…  Climate is average on the patterns of weather records for at least three decades and even circumstantial to variations that may occur beyond the average.  Terms in daily meteorology as windy, sunny, rainy, cloudy… are about Weather patterns and terms as desert, semi-desert, temperate, alpine, afro- alpine… are expressions for climate patter.  We Ethiopians identify climate as Bereha, Qolla, Dega, Woina-dega, Wurch etc Question!towhichkindoftheaboveclimate categories your home land can be grouped?

5. 5 5.2 Elements of Weather and Climate Elements(components)ofweatherand climate are the following variables Atmospherictemperature(howcoldorhotis the atmosphere) Precipitation(anykindofmoisturefallingfrom the atmosphere to the ground, mostly rainfall) Air pressure (the weight exerted by the air) Humidity (the level or proportion of water vapor within the atmosphere) Sunshine (the duration and intensity of solar heat as well as light) Wind (horizontal motion of air)

6. 6 5.3 Controls of Weather and Climate The climate and even weather condition of a place is determined by the collective effect of the following controlling factors Latitude (how far is the place from the equator) Altitude(elevationoftheplacerelativetothesea level) Topography (for instance mountain barriers) Oceancurrents(warmingorcoolingeffectreleased from adjacent oceans to the place) Wind Cloud Distance from a certain water body Prevalence or absence of vegetation

7. A. Latitude The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66 ½ ° with the plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½ ° from the perpendicular to the ecliptic plane (This determines the location of the Tropics of Cancer, Capricorn & the Arctic & Antarctic Circles) Angle of inclination of the sun rays 7

8. 8 Due to inclination of the earths rotational axis by 23 ½ ° the perpendicular nature of solar ray is limited only to the tropical region (between tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn). Section of the earth out of the tropic receives an oblique solar ray which is weak in intensity. As you move further away from the equator towards the poles, less powerful solar insolation is received and the temperature become colder. Compared to those far from the equator, places near the equator receives: High intensity of solar radiation, balanced duration of day & night, and High level precipitation

9. . Heat distribution along latitude 183

10.  Ethiopia’slatitudinal location is within the tropic particularly between 3ºN and 15ºN and so has; Adequate access to solar heat, balanced length of day and night as well as Adequate distribution of precipitation. 10

11. 11 Equinoxes An “equinox” implies equal duration of the day time and the night time. Such a phenomena happens when the sun ray strikes the surface of the earth with an angle of 90º. An equinox regularly occurs on two particular days with a 6 months gap each year for all the specific places within the tropics. e.g. 1. places along the equator (0º latitude) have an equinox phenomena on September 23 rd and March 21 st. e.g. 2. Addis Ababa found with in the tropic at 9ºN experience an over head sun on April 25 and August 16 Each year. In these two particular days the length of day and night in Addis is exactly equal i.e. Equinox. NB: your home land/town even have its own equinox!!

12. 12 For all the places out of the tropics equinox is an impossible phenomena. Because the sun never to have an overhead position out of the tropical zone. As we move pole ward, the tendency to experience unbalanced length of day and night increase. March 21 marks the onset (first day) of the spring season for northern hemisphere and it is known as Vernal (spring) equinox. It is the day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays crosses the equator northward.

13. Onwards from the vernal equinox for six months, the sun stays on overhead position to the Northern Hemisphere section of the tropical world September 23 rd marks the onset(beginning) of Autumn season for Northern Hemisphere and it is known as Autumn equinox. It occurs when the sun crosses equator southward. 13

14. 14 Solstice A “Solstice” is an event when the overhead sun appears along the two tropic lines. on June 22 nd, The sun appears to its highest position in the noonday sky directly above 23 ½ ( at Tropic of Cancer). This particular date known as the summer Solstice. It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere. Places in the northern hemisphere has maximum tilt towards the sun to this date experience their longest daylight session in the year.

15. on December 22 nd, The sun appears to its highest position in the noonday sky directly above 23 ½ºS ( at Tropic of Capricorn). This particular date known as the winter Solstice. It is the astronomical first day for the Northern Hemisphere winter. Places in the southern hemisphere has maximum tilt towards the sun to this date experience their longest daylight session in the year. 15

16. Length of the dayon winter and summer solstices in the northern hemisphere Latitude 0 20 0 40 0 60 0 90 0 December 2112h 00m10h 48m9h 8m5h 33m0 June 2112h13h 12m14h 52m18h 27m24 hr 16

17. 17 B. Altitude Altitude is the height of location from the sea level. The atmosphere is directly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the place near the sea level record higher temperature than the place situated at higher elevations. For this reason there is a general decrease in temperature with an increase in elevation. The rate of decrease of temperature with height termed as the normal lapse rate (6.5 ° per 1000m). The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere (the troposphere).

18. Example:-ifthealtitudeofagiven mountain is 4070m above mean sea level and the temperature at the sea level is 20 °. Rejecting the effect of all other climate controlling factors, temperature at the top of the mountain expected to be: 1000m = 6.5 0 c 4070m = ? 1000m (4070mx6.5 ° ) =26.45 0 C (colder than the temperature at sea level. That means 20 ° - (26.45) = -6.45 0 c However, altitude may not be the only factor to determine temperature at the top of this mountain. So you possibly have an actual temperature below or above - 6.45 ° depending on the effect of the other factors. -6.45 ° c 18 20 °

19. 19 Types of lapse rate i. Dry adiabatic laps rate Dry adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes in response molecular expansion associated with increase or decrease in altitude. When air rises, it expands because there is less weight of air upon it. Thus, if a mass of dry air at sea level rises to an altitude of about 18,000ft (5486.22 meters), the pressure upon it is reduced by nearly half and consequently its volume is doubled.

20. As long as the air in the parcel is unsaturated (the relative humidity is less than 100 percent), the rate of adiabatic cooling remains constant. More precisely, if the upward movement of air does not produce condensation, then the energy exerted by expansion process will cause the temperature of the mass to fall at the constant dry adiabatic lapse rate i.e. 10°C for every 1000 m increase in elevation. This rate also applies on the process in opposite direction as adiabatic warming. 20

21. ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate Iftheairbecomessaturated (100% longer humid)it coolat willno thedry adiabatic rate due to the latent heat in the water vapor carried by the air. A saturated air containing water droplets would warm (if it moves down ward) or cool (if it moves upward) to a rate of approximately 5 ° c per 1000meters change in elevation. This rate is called wet adiabatic laps rate. 21

22. 22 iii. Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late This refers to the actual, observed change of temperature with altitude due to the collective effect of: nearness to the source of terrestrial emission, abundance of greenhouse gases and dust particles. Atmosphere near to the earths surface contains more water vapor and dust, which causes it to be a more efficient absorber of terrestrial radiation to be warmer compared to the thinner upper section. In this regard temperature fall at a rate of 6.5 ° C/1000 meters upward and the revers is true. This decrease in temperature upward from the earth's surface normally prevails throughout the lower atmosphere.

23. C. Distance from the Sea Another factor that influences atmospheric temperature is the location of a place with respect to the sea. Compared to the land, the sea gets heated slowly and losses heat slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land. places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea (sea breezes) which minimize their temperature. 197

24. 24 D. Ocean current  Currentsaremovementsofocean waterina continuous flow, created largely by surface winds but also partly by temperature and salinity gradients, Earth’s rotation, and tides.  Major current systems typically flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere & counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere, in circular patterns that often trace the coastlines.  Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics.  Thus, ocean currents regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface.

25. Similarly, the places located on the cost where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature & rainfall than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow. 25

26. 26 5.4 Spatial Distribution of Temperature in Ethiopia Altitude and Latitude, are the primary determinant of temperature in Ethiopia. Global winds pattern, cloud and humidity with varying magnitude have also significant impacts on temperature condition in Ethiopia. The location of Ethiopia at close proximity to equator make every part of the country to experience overhead sun twice a year. However, in Ethiopia, as it is a highland country, tropical temperature conditions have no full spatial coverage.

27. Cont… From the peripheries(border lowlands) towards the center of the country, the land gradually rise in altitude considerably. Thus, temperature decreases towards the interior highlands. This makes tropical kind of climate limited to the border lowlands and Non-tropical (cool or fairly cold) climate experienced all over the highland. Mean annual temperature varies from over 30ºC in the tropical lowlands to less than 10ºc at the very high altitudes. 201

28. 28 The Bale Mountains, choke mountain ranges, Semien mountain ranges are among highlands where lowest mean annual temperatures are recorded even below 0ºC. While the vast plateau lands all over the highlands (parts of Tigray, Gonder, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, SW-highlands, Arsi, Bali and Hararghe) have a moderate or mild temperature distribution.

29. 29 Thehighestmeanannualtemperatureinthe country is recorded in the Afar Depression. Moreover:  North-western lowlands( Humera & Metema),  Western lowlands(Abay-Dinder & Baro-Akbo)  south-easternlowlands(Ogaden,Elkerie& Borena). experiencesmeanmaximumtemperaturesof more than 30º C.

30. Agro-ecological zone of Ethiopia 30

31. 31 5.5 Temporal Distribution of Temperature in Ethiopia The temporal(seasonal) distribution of temperature in Ethiopian is characterized by extremes.  The major controls determining its distributions are latitude, wind and cloud cover. In the tropics, the daily range of temperature is higher and the annual range is small, whereas the reverse is true in the temperate latitudes.

32. 32 In Ethiopia, as in all places in the tropics, the air is frost free and changes in solar angles are small making intense solar radiation.  Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme (very low or very high) than its annual averages.  Daily maximum temperature varies from more than 37ºC over the eastern lowlands to lower of about 10ºC over the northwestern and southwestern highlands.

33. 33 The variation in the amount of solar radiation received daily is small throughout the year. As already explained, temperature is high during the daytime in some places, and is considerably reduced at night resulting maximum difference in the daily range.

34. 34 But in case of monthly averages, variation is minimal and the annual range of temperature is small. This holds true in both the highlands and lowlands. In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperature shows seasonal variations. For example, months from March to June in Ethiopia have records of highest temperatures. Conversely, low temperatures are recorded from November to February.

35. 35 It is not easy to observe distinct variation in temperature between seasons as the sun is always high in the tropics. However, there is a slight temperature increase in summer and decline in winter. Southern part of Ethiopia receives highest records of temperature in autumn and spring following the relative shift of the sun; whereas in the northern part of the country, summer season is characterized by higher temperature.

36. It has to be noted that certain seasons should have special considerations. For instance, considerable part of Ethiopia experience reduced temperature for most of the seasons due to prevailing cloud cover. 36

37. 5.6 Spatial and temporal Distribution of Rainfall RainfalldistributioninEthiopiais characterized by complexities. ItisgovernedbypositionofInterTropical ConvergenceZone(ITC), pressure TradeWinds,Ethiopia'stopography cells, and location. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) is the converging zone for Northeast Trade winds and the Equatorial westerlies. ITCZ is a low-pressure zone occurred at the zone of overhead sun. 211

38. 38  As the overhead position of the sun apparently oscillates between the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn season to season the ITCZ oscillates parallel. ITCZ causes variation in the Wind patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn throughout the seasons.  During summer (June, July, August) (mid June – mid September) position of the overhead sun and ITCZ appears in the latitude North of Ethiopia as a result Equatorial westerly's or Guinea monsoon which are warm & moist reaches Ethiopia from equatorial Atlantic.  These winds facing the western high relief of Ethiopia drop their moisture all over the western Ethiopian physiographic region.

39. 39 However, the northern rift valley and the eastern physiographic region become rain shadow from these winds.  During Autumn (September, October and November) From mid September- mid December) : the ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the equatorial westerlies. During this season, the south easterlies from Indian ocean showers the lowlands in southeastern part of Ethiopia.

40. 40  During winter (December, January & February) From mid December - mid March overhead position of the sun and ITCZ shifts south of equator towards Tropic of Capricorn. So, Northeast Trade Winds fromnorthernAsia (coldanddry) CrossesalloverEthiopiatowards southern tropic. This makes dry and relatively cold winter all over Ethiopia exceptional to Afar and parts of Eritrean coasts.

41. Note: The Northeast trade winds crossing the Red Sea carry very little moisture and supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas. 41

42. 42  In Spring (March, April and May) From mid March- mid June the overhead sun appears directly on the equator while shifting to the north from south. The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more direct solar radiation providing warmer weather for the northern world. In this season, the effect of the northeast trade wind is very much reduced. Conversely, the south easterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to the highlands of Bale & all the adjacent places

43. 43 5.7 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia  Summer rainfall region The Summer rainfall region comprises almost all parts of the country, except the southeastern and northeastern lowlands. Ethiopia experiences most of its rain during summer (kiremt).  Year-round rainfall region southwestern part of the Ethiopia has a prolonged rainy season than any other part of the country. The wetness of this region is particularly due to the prevalence of the moist equatorial Westerly winds or Guinea Monsoons.

44.  Autumn and Spring rainfall regions South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during autumn and spring seasons. The southeastern Ethiopian highlands receive their big rainduring spring and a little rain in Autumn.  Winter rainfall region the Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain. 1 44 2 3 4 1234512345 5

45. 45 5.8Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia The contrasting altitude and climatic conditions, enriches Ethiopia to possesses divers agro- climatic zones. There are five major climatic zones traditionally identified as Bereha, Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega and Wurch. i. The Wurch climate Zone  Altitude higher than 3,200 m a.s.l,  Mean annual temperature of less than 10°C. e.g. Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez in North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.

46. 46 ii. Dega climate Zone  altitude is between 2300 and 3200 m.a.s.l  Mean annual temperature is 10-15°C  haverelativelyhighertemperatureandlower altitude compared to the wurch Zones.  Dega-zoneiswellinhabitedandhas human settlement patterns  Rainfall is reliable for agriculture  Novector-borne diseases such as malaria. dense

47. 47 iii. Weyna Dega climate Zone  Thiszonehaswarmertemperatureandmoderate rainfall.  Averageannualtemperaturerangesbetween15°C& 20°C  It lies between 1500-2,300 m.a.s.l  It covers more than 26% of the land area of Ethiopia.  The temperature and rainfall of woina dega zone is highly suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia.  This zone includes most of the agricultural land.  The Weyna Dega zone has two growing seasons.

48. 48 iv. Kolla climate Zone  the geographic peripheries in south, southeast, west and northeastern part are mainly in this category.  Kollaistheclimateofthehotlowlandswithan altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 m.a.s.l  Averageannualtemperaturerangesbetween20°C and 30°C.  Although mean annual rainfall is erratic, it can be as high as 1500 mm in the wet western lowlands of Gambella.  Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.  The region is a transition between the hot arid (Bereha) and the humid climates (Woina Dega).

49. 49 v. Bereha climate Zone  Berehaisthehotaridclimateofthedesert lowlands.  itlargelyconfinedtolowlandareaswith altitude of lower than 500 meters.  Itsaverageannualrainfallislessthan200 mm, and  average annual temperature is over 30 °C

50. 50 ZonesAltitude (m)Mean annual rainfall (mm) Length of growing periods (days) Mean annual temperatur e ( 0 C) Area shar e (%) Wurch (cold to moist)/Alpine or Afro Alpine >3,300900-2,200211–365Below 100.98 Dega (cool to humid)/Temprate 2,300 - 3,300900-1,200121–21010–159.94 Weyna Dega (cool sub humid)/ Subtropical 1,500 - 2300800-1,20091–12015 – 2026.75 Kola (Warm semiarid) /Tropical 500 - 1,500200-80046–9020– 3052.94 Berha (Hot arid) /Desert <500Below 2000–45>309.39 Agro Ecological Zones of Ethiopia

51. 51 5.9 Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and Response Mechanisms What is climate change? Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that was known and can be identified before(e.g. using statistical tests). Changes in the variability of its properties that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural variability or human activities.

52. 52 Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia Besides the normal spatial and temporal variations in different parts of the country, Ethiopian experiences climate extremes such as drought, flood etc. Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of its vulnerability to drought. 12 extreme drought events were recorded between 1900 and 2010 in the country. Among the 12, seven of the drought events occurred since 1980.

53. 53 The majority of these drought phenomena resulted in famines. The severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the strongest El Nino that caused successive harvest failures and widespread livestock deaths in some regions. Trends in Temperature Variability Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes. Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise per decade over the last 40-50 years.

54. 54 A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed between 1960 and 2006. The rise has spatial and temporal variation. Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in northeast and southeast part of the country. Notably the variability is higher in July- September. The number of ‘hot days’ and ‘hot nights’ has also shown increment. Consequently, the country’s minimum temperature has increased with 0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade.

55. 55 Trends in Rainfall Variability Precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last 50 years when averaged over the country. However, these averages do not reflect local conditions. Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts of the country. In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline. For instance, parts of southern, southwestern and south-eastern regions receiving Spring and Summer rainfall have shown decline by 15-20%between 1975 and 2010.

56. 56 This has strong implications for crop production, which becomes clear when assessing the change in areas that receive sufficient rain to support crop production. Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and severity of extreme events. Major floods have been a common occurrence, leading to loss of life and property in numerous parts of the country. Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in the lowlands of the country is expanding.

57. 57 5.9.1 Causes of Climate Change The causes of climate change are generally categorized as anthropogenic/manmade and natural causes. A. Natural Causes Climate change has many natural causes, such as  Earth orbital changes: The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons. More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.

58. 58  ThevariationonglobalheatEnergy Budget: Although the Sun’s energy output appears constant, small changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate changes. Since the Sun was born, 4.55 billion years ago, it has been very gradually increasing its amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to 30% more intense than it was once.

59. 59 eruptions:volcaniceruption sulphur  Volcanic releases dioxide, large carbon volumesof dioxide,watervapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling.  Continental drifts towards the pole or towards equator

60. 60 B. Anthropogenic Causes The growing influence of human activities on the environment is being increasingly recognized, and concern over the potential for global warming caused by such anthropogenic effects is growing. The warming of the planet in the past 50 years is majorly driven by human activities.  Theindustrialactivitiesthat ourmodern civilizationdependsuponhaveraised atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 400 parts per million in the last 150 years.

61. 61  Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth's temperatures over the past 50 years.  Themajor greenhouse gasesthatcontributetothe effect includeWater Carbondioxide(CO2),Methane, vapor, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).Although, methane is less abundant in atmosphere, it is by far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

62.  Thedecompositionof wastesinlandfills, agriculture, digestionand management, ruminant manure synthetic compounds manufacturing,clearing oflandforagriculture, industrial activities, and otherhumanactivities haveincreased concentrationsof greenhouse gases. 62

63. 63 5.9.2 Consequences of Climate Change In many parts of the world, climate change has already caused loss of life, damaging property and affecting livelihoods. The impact of climate change is higher in low income countries, since they have limited capacity to cope with the changes. Some of the consequences of the changing climate include :

64. 64 Impacts on human health: The change can cause increased heat related mortality and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics following floods and storms, and substantial health effects following population displacement to escape extreme weather events. Climate change also raises the incidence malaria. Impact on Agriculture: changes in temperature and rainfall patterns as well as significantly affect agricultural production. Climate change increases physiological stress and fodder quality and availability.

65. 65 Impact on water resources : Climate change is leading to melting of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea level, increase drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern, decreases water table. More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes. Impact on Ecosystem: climate change affects the success of species, population, and community adaptation. The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of shifts in certain range species, these species could be seriously affected or even disappear because they are unable to resist.

66. 66 5.9.3Response Mechanisms to Climate change Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us today. So even if we stopped emitting all greenhouse gases today, global warming and climate change will continue as it has natural source of emission. Hence, there has to be response mechanism to reduce the impact of extreme events. There are three major response mechanisms to climate change namely mitigation, adaptation and resilience.

67. 67 Mitigation and its Strategies Mitigation measures are those actions that are taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas emissions changing the climate. Moreover, it implies reducing the flow of heat trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil)

68. 68  The goal of mitigations is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system. There are some mitigation measures that can be taken to avoid the increase of pollutant emissions:- Practice Energy efficiency Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.

69. 69 Adaptation and Strategies Throughout history, people and societies have adjusted to and coped with changes in climate and extremes with varying degrees of success. Adaptation is simply defined as adapting to life in a changing climate. It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change such as extreme weather events or food insecurity. It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some regions).

70. 70  Some of the major adaptation strategies include: building flood defenses, plan for heat waves and higher temperatures, installingwater-permeablepavementstobetter deal with floods and storm water improvewaterstorageandusearesomeof measures taken by cities and towns. landscape restoration and reforestation, flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes preventiveandprecautionarymeasures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)

71. 71