1. Morph, Allomorph and Morpheme Morphology=study of words, word formation, analyze constituent elements of words. Morpheme= smallest indivisible unit of semantic content and grammatical function Minimal unit of a language which has a meaning or grammatical function. Example: Unjustifiable= 3morphemes Un=profix means not, able= suffix that change a verb into adjective such as love=lovable, use= usable, accept= acceptable

2. Contued--------- Un, justify, able are indivisible. Morphemes are said to parts of words, such as prefixes, roots and suffixes. Morph= actual shape, realization of a morpheme. An element of speech or writing that represents and expresses one or more morphem. Langendoen defines morph: a specific pronunciation associated with a specific meaning, the pronunciation cannot be broken into meaning parts. Example: the word man= 1 morph, 1 morpheme, while the word men carry out 1 morph and 2 morphemes ( man+ plural), we cannot divide the word men, so it is the actual form of the word.

3. Cond------- the word foot includes 1 morph and 1 morpheme, while the word feet includes 1 morph and 2 morphemes (foot+ plural) word students is carrying two morphs and 2 morphemes (student+ plural marker). Thus morph can be defined as a physical form representing some morphemes in a language. Allomorph= is the variant of the same morpheme. Different realization of one morpheme. It is positional variant, it means where occurs the other cannot occur. For example, the plural marker s has three allomorphs s, z, iz

4. Cond------ 1- /s/ after voiceless sounds such as /p,t,k Example: rope= ropes, pipe= pipes 2. /z/ after voiced sounds such as b,d,g etc Example: Tub= tubs, Road= Roads, 3. /iz/after affricates and sibilants such as ch,sh Example: watch= watches, dish= dishes

5. Words and Lexemes, Types and Tokens Lexeme= an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics A set of forms taken by a single word Example: run, runs ran, running are the forms of the same lexeme. The set of inflected forms taken by a single word While word is the action of our speaking as opposed to writing. Example: in the word speak, speaks,speaking spoke, spoken, we don’t mean it is morphological analysis that this word is inflected by s,ing,en,…… instead we mean the action of someone such as I speak, she speaks, we are speaking, they spoke, he has spoken.

6. Conted….. My friend and I walk to class together, because our classes are in the same building and we dislike walking alone. In the above sentences, if we are counting every in instance in which occurs in a sentence regardless of whether that word has occurred before or not, we are counting word token. But, if we are counting a word once, no matter how many times it occurs in a sentence we are counting word types. In the above example, we have 21 word token and 20 word type.

7. Lexical and functional Morphemes We have studied free morphemes, Example: nouns,adjectives,verbs= Lexical Morphemes, they carry the “content” of messages we convey. Example: Noun: girl, teacher, chair, water Adjective: good, long, tall, red, large Verb: Open, look, drink, write, read They are open class of words. Example, everyday new nouns, Adjectives and verbs can added to a language.

8. Functional Morphems Some morphemes are called functional morphemes. Example: and, but, when, because, on, near, above, the, that, it, them They are called functional words too. Example, conjunction, articles, pronouns, prepositions,. Since we cannot add new functional words to the language, they are called closed class of words

9. Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes Set of affixes that make up category of bound morphemes can be divided into two types: Type one: Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words. Derivational morpheme include suffixes, example the suffix less that change the noun care into adjective careless, the suffix ness change the adjective busy into noun business. Derivational morphemes include prefixes: example, the prefix re in the word open= reopen, the prefix ir in the word regular=irregular, the prefix mis in the word understand= misunderstand

10. Conted…….. Type Two: inflectional morphemes: they do not use to produce new words in the language. They indicate aspects of grammatical function of words. Example, they change a single noun into plural; example, Classroom+s= classrooms, they can change a present form of the verb into past, example, work+ed= worked, they can form comparative and superlative form of the word, example, tall+er= taller, tall+est= tallest, and also they can form possessive form of the words, example, Ahmad+’s= Ahmad’s

11. Conted……… English has only eight inflectional morphemes, s in simple present tense ing in progressive tense s in plural nouns. ‘s in possessive nouns d in past tense en in third form of the irregular verbs er in comparative est in superlative form of the adjectives

12. According to the researches, there are various classification of suffixes. They are classified according to their origins, parts of speech, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. According to lexica-grammar groups and semantic fields suffixes have been classified semantically. We begin classification of suffixes according to the parts of speech in which the most frequent suffixes of present day English occure. Classification of Affixes

13. Noun-forming Suffixes 1. age= bondage, breakage 11. hood= manhood, likelihood 2.ance= assistance, importance 12. ing= building, meaning 3.ence= reference, 13. ion= union 4 ant= disinfectant 14.sion= tension, vision 5.ent= student 15. ation = relation, explanation 6.dom= kingdom, freedom 16.ism= heroism, 7. ee = employee, attendee 17.icism= criticism 8. eer= volunteer, profiteer 18. ist= novelist, finalist 9. er= teacher, leader 19. ment= government, movement 10. ess= actress, loiness 20. ness= easiness, business, 21. ship = relationship, friendship 22 ity=

14. Adjective-forming suffixes 1. able= unbearable, capable 17. ish= Irish, polish 2. ible= audible, 18. ive= active, 3. uble= soluble, 19. less= useless 4. al= formal, internal 20. like=lifelike 5. ic= poetic, mimic 21. ly= friendly, manly 6. ical= ethical, identical 22. ous= tremendous 7. ant= repentant, 24. some= tiresome 9. ary= revolutionary 25. y= cloudy 10. ate= accurate, 26. ent= dependent 11.ete= complete 12. ed= wooded, 13. d= aged 14. ful= delightful 15. an=African, 16=ian=australian

15. Numeral-forming suffixes 1. fold=twofold 2. teen=fourteen 3. th= seventh 4. ty= sixty

16. Verb-forming suffixes 1. ate= facilitate 2. er= glimmer 3. en= shorten 4. fy= terrify 5. ify=speechify 6. ise/ize= equalise 8. ish= establish

17. Prefix+verb= verb 1.Re= again or back= restructure 2.Dis= reverse the meaning of the word= disappear 3.Over= too much= overbook, oversleep 4.Un= reverse the meaning of the verb= unbend, unfasten 5.Mis= badly or wrong= mislead, misinform 6.Out= more or better than others= outperform, outbid 7.Be= make or cause= befriend, belittle 8.Co= together= co-exist, co-operate 9.De= do the opposite of = devalue, deselect 10.Fore= earlier, before= foreclose, foresee 11.Inter= between= interact, interface 12.Pre=before = prejudge, pretest 13.Sub= under/below= subcontract, subdivide 14.Trans= across, over= transform, transport 15.Under= not enough= underfund, undersell, underdevelop

18. Adverb-forming suffixes 1. ly= coldly 2. ward/wards= upward, northwards, Wise= likewise

19. Compounding Morphemes Not only derivation but compounding is another way to form new words. Compound are words composed of two or more bases, roots, stems In English we use free bases to compose new words, Example: two nouns= windmill, dog bed, bookstore, Compound of two adjectives: example: icy cold, blue- green, red hot Compounds of an adjective and a noun: example: greenhouse, blackboard, hard hat Compounds of a noun and an adjective: example: sky blue, cherry red, rock hard