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In this chapter, we begin our study of differential calculus.

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1 In this chapter, we begin our study of differential calculus.
This is concerned with how one quantity changes in relation to the changes in another quantity. DERIVATIVE is a measure of how fast does a function change in response to changes in independent variable;

2 The concept of Derivative is at the core of Calculus and modern mathematics. The definition of the derivative can be approached in two different ways. One is geometrical (as a slope of a curve) and the other one is physical (as a rate of change). Historically there was a fight between mathematicians which of the two illustrates the concept of the derivative best and which one is more useful. We will not dwell on this and will introduce both concepts. Our emphasis will be on the use of the derivative as a tool. The derivative measures the instantaneous rate of change of the function, as distinct from its average rate of change.

3 Definition of INFINITESIMAL
1: taking on values arbitrarily close to but greater than zero 2: immeasurably or incalculably small <an infinitesimal difference> Now let us observe:

4 π‘₯ Gradient/slope of secant and tangent line
A secant is a line that intersect a curve. A tangent to a curve at a specific point is a straight line that touches the curve at that point. Slope of the secant line joining 𝑃(π‘Ž, 𝑓(π‘Ž)) and 𝑇 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯,𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯ π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘’π‘›π‘‘/π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ = Let us consider Ξ” x intervals that are getting smaller and smaller. As point T approaches point P, secant line becomes tangent line. P T π‘Ž π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ 𝑓(π‘₯) f (a+Ξ”x) - f(a) π‘₯

5 𝐿𝑒𝑑 𝑦= π‘₯ 2 βˆ’3. 𝐿𝑒𝑑 𝑷 𝑏𝑒 1,βˆ’2 . Gradient of secant line through points 1,βˆ’2 and π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯, 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ 𝑖𝑠 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯ = 𝑓 1+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(1) βˆ†π‘₯ π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘’π‘›π‘‘ = = [(1+βˆ†π‘₯) 2 βˆ’3]βˆ’( 1 2 βˆ’3) βˆ†π‘₯ = 2βˆ†π‘₯+ (βˆ†π‘₯) 2 βˆ†π‘₯ π‘ π‘’π‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘’π‘›π‘‘= 2βˆ†π‘₯+ (βˆ†π‘₯) 2 βˆ†π‘₯ 𝐟𝐨𝐫 βˆ€ βˆ†π’™ Let Ξ”π‘₯β†’0, starting with Ξ”π‘₯=1. βˆ†π‘₯ 2βˆ†π‘₯+ (βˆ†π‘₯) 2 2βˆ†π‘₯+ (βˆ†π‘₯) 2 βˆ†π‘₯ 1 3 0.5 1.25 2.5 0.3 0.09 2.3 0.1 0.21 2.1 0.01 0.0201 2.01 0.001 2.001 0.0001 2.0001 As end point (2,1) approaches point (1,-2) secant line approaches tangent line at (1,-2) Slopes of the secant lines connecting point (1,-2) and other points on the graph are approaching the slope of the line tangent at (1,-2). In that process both, Ξ”f and Ξ”x are becoming infinitesimally small approaching zero, but their ratio is approaching definite value = slope of tangent line at (1,-2) = 2 π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 [(1+βˆ†π‘₯) 2 βˆ’3]βˆ’( 1 2 βˆ’3) βˆ†π‘₯ =2 π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 π‘Žπ‘‘ (1,βˆ’2)

6 S Q T R f (a+Ξ”x) - f(a) P f (x) D x π‘Ž x = lim βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯
Df = f (a+Ξ”x) - f(a) POINTS: π‘Ž,𝑓 π‘Ž π‘Žπ‘›π‘‘ (π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯, 𝑓(π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯)) D x x f (x) S Q T R f (a+Ξ”x) - f(a) P D x Slopes of the secant lines connecting point P and other points on the graph are approaching the slope of the line tangent at P as T approaches P. In that process both, Ξ” f and Ξ” x are becoming infinitesimally small approaching zero, but their ratio is approaching definite value = slope of tangent line at P π‘Ž = lim βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯ π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 π‘Žπ‘‘ 𝑃

7

8 Definition of Derivative
Very often we write β„Ž instead of βˆ†π‘₯ and 𝑓 β€² (a) Derivative of the function 𝑦=𝑓(π‘₯) at a fixed point π‘₯=π‘Ž: 𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯ π‘₯=π‘Ž = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 βˆ†π‘¦ βˆ†π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) βˆ†π‘₯ 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž = π‘™π‘–π‘š β„Žβ†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+β„Ž βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) β„Ž Let’s assume that π‘Ž can take any value of π‘₯ on an open interval 𝐼 The derivative of 𝑓 is the function 𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯ whose value at any π‘₯∈𝐼 is 𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘₯+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘₯) βˆ†π‘₯ provided that this limit exists. If this limit exists for each x in an open interval 𝐼, then we say that f is differentiable on 𝐼 (has a derivative everywhere in its domain).

9 Graphycally: If function has derivative at every point in the domain it is differentiable on the domain.

10 π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
example: 𝑦= π‘₯ 2 βˆ’3 π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 π‘Žπ‘‘ (π‘₯,𝑓 π‘₯ ) 𝑓′(π‘₯)= lim β„Žβ†’0 (π‘₯ 2 +2π‘₯β„Ž+ β„Ž 2 )βˆ’ π‘₯ 2 β„Ž 𝑓 β€² π‘₯ ≑𝑦′= 2π‘₯ π‘₯ π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 π‘Žπ‘‘ π‘π‘œπ‘–π‘›π‘‘ π‘₯=2π‘₯ 1 2 -1 -2 4 -4 Equation of the tangent line to a function 𝑦=𝑓(π‘₯) at the point π‘Ž, 𝑓(π‘Ž) π‘¦βˆ’π‘“ π‘Ž = 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž (π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž)

11 Equivalence of Leibnitz’s and Newton’s definition of derivative
Physical: rate of change Geometrical: Slope of the Tangent to a Curve The derivative of a function π’š=𝒇(𝒙) with respect to 𝒙 is defined as The slope of the tangent to a curve π’š=𝒇 𝒙 with respect to 𝒙 is defined as 𝑑𝑦 𝑑π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 βˆ†π‘¦ βˆ†π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘₯+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘₯) βˆ†π‘₯ π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’= π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 βˆ†π‘¦ βˆ†π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘₯+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘₯) βˆ†π‘₯ The derivative measures the instantaneous rate of change of the function, 𝑑𝑦 𝑑π‘₯ , as distinct from its average rate of change, βˆ†π‘¦ βˆ†π‘₯ . P P f (x) f (x) x x π‘₯ π‘₯ In differentiation Leibniz used the symbols 𝑑π‘₯ and 𝑑𝑦 to represent "infinitely small" (or infinitesimal) increments of π‘₯ and 𝑦, just as Ξ”π‘₯ and Δ𝑦 represent finite increments of π‘₯ and 𝑦.[ The ratio of two finite increments becomes the ratio of two infinitesimal increments in the process of finding the limit, yet still that ratio is a finite value. And it is equal to the slope of tangent line.

12 𝑦 β€² π‘₯ πΏπ‘Žπ‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’ 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑑 π‘π‘’π‘€π‘‘π‘œπ‘›
Notation: 𝑑𝑦 𝑑π‘₯ 𝐿𝑒𝑖𝑏𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑧 𝑦 β€² π‘₯ πΏπ‘Žπ‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’ 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑑 π‘π‘’π‘€π‘‘π‘œπ‘› When derivatives are taken with respect to time, they are often denoted using Newton's dot notation There are many ways to write and read the derivative of 𝑓 β€² π‘₯ "𝑓 π‘π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘šπ‘’ π‘₯" π‘œπ‘Ÿ "π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘£π‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘£π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑓 π‘€π‘–π‘‘β„Ž π‘Ÿπ‘’π‘ π‘π‘’π‘π‘‘ π‘‘π‘œ π‘₯" 𝑦 β€² "𝑦 π‘π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘šπ‘’ π‘₯" π‘œπ‘Ÿ "π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘£π‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘£π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑦 π‘€π‘–π‘‘β„Ž π‘Ÿπ‘’π‘ π‘π‘’π‘π‘‘ π‘‘π‘œ π‘₯" 𝑑𝑦 𝑑π‘₯ "𝑑𝑦 𝑑π‘₯" π‘œπ‘Ÿ "π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘£π‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘£π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑦 π‘€π‘–π‘‘β„Ž π‘Ÿπ‘’π‘ π‘π‘’π‘π‘‘ π‘‘π‘œ π‘₯" 𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯ "𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯" π‘œπ‘Ÿ "π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘£π‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘£π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑓 π‘€π‘–π‘‘β„Ž π‘Ÿπ‘’π‘ π‘π‘’π‘π‘‘ π‘‘π‘œ π‘₯" 𝑑 𝑑π‘₯ 𝑓(π‘₯) "𝑑 𝑑π‘₯ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑓 π‘œπ‘“ π‘₯" π‘œπ‘Ÿ "π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘£π‘Žπ‘‘π‘–π‘£π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ 𝑓 π‘€π‘–π‘‘β„Ž π‘Ÿπ‘’π‘ π‘π‘’π‘π‘‘ π‘‘π‘œ π‘₯"

13 Alternate limit form of derivative
𝑓 β€² π‘Ž = π‘™π‘–π‘š β„Žβ†’0 𝑓 π‘Ž+β„Ž βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) π‘Ž+β„Ž βˆ’π‘Ž 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž = π‘™π‘–π‘š π‘₯β†’π‘Ž 𝑓 π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘Ž) π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž

14 Differentiability A function 𝑓(π‘₯) is differentiable on an open interval 𝐼 (has a derivative) if the limit 𝑑𝑓 𝑑π‘₯ = π‘™π‘–π‘š βˆ†π‘₯β†’0 𝑓 π‘₯+βˆ†π‘₯ βˆ’π‘“(π‘₯) βˆ†π‘₯ exists for βˆ€ π‘₯∈𝐼 Functions on closed intervals must have one-sided derivatives defined at the end points. To be differentiable, a function must be continuous and smooth. Derivatives will fail to exist at: corner A function has derivative at a point, if the left derivative is equal to the right derivative at that point. The left slope must be equal to the right slope. cusp vertical tangent discontinuity

15 Differentiability implies continuity,
If f is differentiable at x = c, then f is continuous at x = c. Since a function must be continuous to have a derivative, if it has a derivative then it is continuous. ≑ The converse: "If a function is continuous at c, then it is differentiable at c," - is not true. This happens in cases where the function "curves sharply." π‘£π‘–π‘ π‘’π‘Žπ‘™π‘™π‘¦: 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑑 π‘™π‘–π‘šπ‘–π‘‘ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’β‰ π‘Ÿπ‘–π‘”β„Žπ‘‘ π‘™π‘–π‘šπ‘–π‘‘ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘β„Žπ‘’ π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ Differentiability implies continuity, continuity doesn’t imply differentiability.

16 example: π‘₯ The derivative is defined at the end points of a function on a closed interval. The derivative is the slope of the original function. π‘₯

17 Rate of change The derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a function with respect its variable. This is equivalent to finding the slope of the tangent line to the function at a point. This is where Newton’s and Leibnitz approach meet. Rate of change is large when the derivative is large (and therefore the curve is steep, as at the point P in the figure), the y-values change rapidly. Rate of change is small when derivative is small, the curve is relatively flat and the y-values change slowly.

18 Although you are going to use certain simple rules to compute derivatives that will greatly simplify the task of differentiation, sometimes there will be a question to find derivative directly from the definition (very good to remind you of the true meaning of derivative). Before we introduce these simple rule without which calculus BC would be even worse nightmare, there would be no Ipad and the life as we know it ……. let us use definition of derivative, and find some simple rules.

19 π‘¦βˆ’π‘“ π‘Ž = 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž (π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž) π‘¦βˆ’π‘“ π‘Ž =βˆ’ 1 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž (π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž)
Equation of the tangent line to a function 𝑦=𝑓(π‘₯) at the point π‘Ž, 𝑓(π‘Ž) π‘¦βˆ’π‘“ π‘Ž = 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž (π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž) Equation of the normal line to a function 𝑦=𝑓(π‘₯) at the point π‘Ž, 𝑓(π‘Ž) π‘¦βˆ’π‘“ π‘Ž =βˆ’ 1 𝑓 β€² π‘Ž (π‘₯βˆ’π‘Ž)

20 The hyperbola and its tangent
Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola 𝑦= 3 π‘₯ at the point (3, 1). The slope of the tangent at (3, 1) is: 3 3+β„Ž βˆ’ 1 β„Ž βˆ’ β„Ž β„Ž(3+β„Ž) βˆ’ 1 3+β„Ž 1 3 𝑓 3+β„Ž βˆ’π‘“(3) β„Ž π‘š= lim β„Žβ†’ = lim β„Žβ†’ = lim β„Žβ†’ = lim β„Žβ†’ =βˆ’ Eq. of the tangent at the point (3, 1) is π‘¦βˆ’1=βˆ’ 1 3 (π‘₯βˆ’3) π‘₯ + 3𝑦 – 6 = 0 The hyperbola and its tangent are shown in the figure How do you find normal at (3,1) ?

21 π»π‘œπ‘€ π‘‘π‘œ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘β„Ž 𝑓 β€² π‘₯ π‘˜π‘›π‘œπ‘€π‘–π‘›π‘” π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘β„Ž 𝑓(π‘₯)
π»π‘œπ‘€ π‘‘π‘œ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘β„Ž 𝑓 β€² π‘₯ π‘˜π‘›π‘œπ‘€π‘–π‘›π‘” π‘”π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘β„Ž 𝑓(π‘₯) We can estimate the value of the derivative at any value of x by drawing the tangent at the point (π‘₯,𝑓(π‘₯)) and estimating its slope. For instance, for x = 5, we draw the tangent at P in the figure and estimate its slope to be about 3/2, so 𝑓′(5)β‰ˆ1.5. This allows us to plot the point 𝑃’(5, 1.5) on the graph of f’ directly beneath P. Repeating this procedure at several points, we get the graph shown in this figure. Tangents at x = A, B, and C are horizontal. So, the derivative is 0 there and the graph of f’ crosses the x-axis at those points. Between A and B, the tangents have positive slope. So, f’(x) is positive there. Between B and C, and the tangents have negative slope. So, f’(x) is negative there.

22 Derivative of a function at a point gives
β€’ The slope of the tangent line at that point β€’ The instantaneous rate of change at that point Application of the Derivative to Motion Let 𝑠 𝑑 be a position function as a function of time 𝑑 and 𝑣(𝑑) be a velocity function as a function of time. Then: The average rate of change of position on a time interval from 𝑑=π‘Ž to 𝑑=𝑏 is called average velocity. β€’π΄π‘£π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘Žπ‘”π‘’ π‘£π‘’π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘–π‘‘π‘¦= π‘β„Žπ‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’ 𝑖𝑛 π‘π‘œπ‘ π‘–π‘‘π‘–π‘œπ‘› π‘‘π‘–π‘šπ‘’ π‘–π‘›π‘‘π‘’π‘Ÿπ‘£π‘Žπ‘™ = βˆ†π‘  βˆ†π‘‘ = 𝑠 𝑏 βˆ’π‘  π‘Ž π‘βˆ’π‘Ž =π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘ π‘’π‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 The instantaneous rate of change of position at time 𝑑 is called instantaneous velocity. β€’πΌπ‘›π‘ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘’π‘œπ‘’π‘  π‘£π‘’π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘–π‘‘π‘¦ 𝑣 𝑑 = 𝑠 β€² 𝑑 = lim βˆ†π‘‘β†’0 βˆ†π‘  βˆ†π‘‘ =π‘ π‘™π‘œπ‘π‘’ π‘œπ‘“ π‘‘π‘Žπ‘›π‘”π‘’π‘›π‘‘ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒


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