1. World History
Unit 5: Nationalism

2. Purposes & Meanings for Unit 5
Unit 5 covers a great deal of material, and therefore this PowerPoint presentation will be longer than you have been exposed to so far. There are six different state standards to be covered, so please be patient and take good notes.
We will go a bit backwards and look more deeply at the political scene after the Congress of Vienna (1815), and see how the ‘conservative/liberal’ political divide, created during the French Revolution, deepened. This will take us up to the Revolutions of 1848.
Once past that, we will look at the unification struggles in Italy and Germany.
We will examine conditions in Russia as it approaches the 19th and 20th centuries.
The complexities of multinational empires, such as Austria-Hungary & the Ottoman Empire (as well as Russia) will be analyzed.

3. Ideologies After 1815

4. Objectives
Understand the goals of the conservatives.
Explain how liberals and nationalists challenged the old order.
Summarize the early challenges to the old order in Europe.

5. Terms and People
ideology – a system of thought and belief
universal manhood suffrage – giving all adult men the right to vote
autonomy – self-rule

6. How did conservatives clash with liberals and nationalists after 1815?
At the Congress of Vienna, the powers of Europe tried to uproot the “revolutionary seed” and suppress nationalist fervor. Others, however, challenged the order imposed in 1815.
The clash of people with opposing ideologies plunged Europe into more than 30 years of turmoil.

7. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 was a victory for conservatives.
For the next three decades, conservatives such as Prince Clemens von Metternich of Austria clashed with liberals and nationalists.

8. Conservatives also backed established churches:
Conservatives wanted to restore the social and political order that had existed before 1789.
Conservatives also backed established churches:
They wished to restore:
Royal families who had lost their thrones during Napoleon’s wars
A social hierarchy in which the lower classes respected and obeyed their social superiors
Catholic in Austria and southern Europe
Protestant in northern Europe
Eastern Orthodox in eastern Europe

9. Conservatives believed that:
If change had to come, it must come slowly
By defending peace and stability, all of society would benefit
Ideas such as natural rights could only lead to chaos
Conservatives urged monarchs to use troops to crush protests. They believed that revolutionary ideas such as freedom of the press must be suppressed.

10. Inspired by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, liberals and nationalists challenged conservatives.
Middle-class or “bourgeois” liberalism represented the interests of business owners, bankers, lawyers, editors, and writers.
Liberals called for greater individual freedom.

11. They opposed:
Divine-right monarchies
The old aristocracy
Established churches
Liberals wanted governments based on written constitutions.
They saw the role of government as protecting the individual’s freedom of thought, speech, and religion.

12. As capitalists, they had different goals from those of the poor, working class.
They believed only those with a financial stake in society, male property owners, should be able to vote.
Only later would liberals support universal manhood suffrage.
Liberals supported laissez-faire and the free market.

13. Nationalists looked to unite people with common heritage.
States such as Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman empire included many diverse ethnic groups.
In the 1800s, national groups sought to create their own states based on a common heritage.
For centuries European rulers had traded lands through wars or royal marriages.

14. Nationalism spurred revolts in southeastern and southern Europe in the early 1800s.
The Ottomans had ruled the Balkans in southeastern Europe for 300 years.
Karageorge led a Serbian revolt against the Ottomans between 1804 and 1813.
The revolt failed, but it increased Serbian nationalism and led to a revival of Serbian literature and culture.

15. The Serbians were aided by Russia, which shared a similar language and the same Eastern Orthodox religion.
With Russian help, Serbia gained autonomy within the Ottoman empire.
In 1815, Milos Obrenovic led a second, successful revolt.
The Ottoman sultan later agreed to grant Serbia formal independence. Russia would continue to play a major role in Serbia.

16. In 1821, Greeks revolted against Ottoman rule.
A long, bloody struggle united Greeks. Their
leaders called the struggle “a national war, a holy war, a war the object of which is to reconquer the rights of individual liberty.”
Western powers supported Greece, but later pressured the Greeks to accept a German king, showing their opposition to revolutionary nationalism.

17. In the 1820s, revolts also occurred in Spain, Portugal, and the Italian peninsula.
Metternich urged conservative rulers to crush these uprisings. French armies suppressed a revolt in Spain. Austrian forces did the same in Italy.
Despite such shows of force, calls to overthrow the old order increased in the 1800s.
Socialists sought to reorganize property ownership.

18. Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

19. Objectives
Describe how French rebels won some reforms in 1830.
Analyze how the spirit of reform spread in 1830.
Explain the revolutions that surged through France and throughout the rest of Europe in 1848.

20. Terms and People
radicals – those in favor of extreme change
Louis Philippe – France’s “citizen king,” who replaced Charles X in 1830
recession – a period of reduced economic activity
Napoleon III – Louis Napoleon; elected president of France; took the title of emperor in 1852
Louis Kossuth – Hungarian nationalist and journalist who led demands to end serfdom and create an independent, constitutional government

21. What were the causes and effects of the revolutions in Europe in 1830 and 1848?
The quick suppression of liberal and nationalist uprisings in the 1820s did not end Europe’s age of revolutions. In 1830 and again in 1848, Europeans saw street protests explode into full-scale revolts.
As in 1789, the upheavals began in Paris and radiated out across the continent.

22. In 1824, Charles X took the throne in France.
Like French kings before the Revolution, Charles believed in absolute monarchy.
In July 1830, he suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press.

23. In Paris, liberals and radicals took to the streets to protest the king’s actions.
From behind barricades, they fired on soldiers.
Within days, rebels controlled Paris, and Charles abdicated.

24. Radicals wanted to form a republic, but liberals insisted on a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.
Louis Philippe filled his government with liberals.
He dressed like the middle class and walked the city streets greeting citizens.
He extended voting rights, but only to the wealthy.
The middle class prospered; the working class did not.
Called the “citizen king,” Louis Philippe got along well with the liberal bourgeoisie.

25. The 1830 revolt in Paris was followed by similar uprisings elsewhere in Europe.
Most were suppressed by military force.
Metternich complained, “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold.”
Even where they failed, some rebels won limited reforms from frightened rulers.

26. One successful revolt was in Belgium, which had been made a part of the kingdom of Holland under a Dutch king.
Inspired by the French uprising, the Belgian middle class rebelled in 1830.
In 1831, Belgium became an independent state with a liberal constitution.

27. A revolution in Poland failed in 1830.
In the 1700s, Poland had been divided among Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
Rather than restoring their nation, the Congress of Vienna gave most of Poland to Russia.
In 1830, students, army officers, and angry landowners rebelled, but they were crushed by Russian troops.

28. Liberals denounced corruption in Louis Philippe’s government.
Socialists called for an end to individual private property.
A recession and poor harvest caused economic hardship.
By 1848, conditions were ripe for revolt.
Discontent grew once again in France during the late 1840s.

29. In February, protestors took to the streets and clashed with troops.
Louis Philippe abdicated, but leaders of the Second Republic were not united in their goals.
Socialists wanted radical measures such as national workshops to provide jobs for the poor.
Middle-class liberals wanted moderate reforms.

30. In June, the liberals took control from the radicals and shut down the workshops.
Furious workers took to the streets in anger against the business class.
Bourgeois liberals didn’t trust the socialists and turned violently against the protestors.
Peasants, fearing loss of their land, turned on the rioting workers.

31. The National Assembly issued a new constitution for the Second Republic.
It created a strong president and a one-house legislature.
All adult males were given the vote.
This was the widest suffrage in the world. Nine million Frenchmen could now vote.

32. Voters elected Louis Napoleon, nephew of Bonaparte, as president in 1848.
He attracted voters with his famous name, and by appearing to favor reform and order.
But in 1852, he proclaimed the Second Empire and himself Emperor Napoleon III.
To support his seizure of power, he held a plebiscite and won with 90 percent of the vote.

33. Many supported Napoleon III because they believed that a monarchy was more stable than a republic.
In the early days of the Second Empire, France enjoyed prosperity and growth.
But Napoleon III later embarked on ill-fated overseas adventures that would bring down his empire.

34. Events in Paris set off a tidal wave of rebellion.
Liberals sought more power and to protect basic rights of all male citizens.
Workers demanded relief from the miseries caused by the Industrial Revolution.
Nationalists of all classes sought to throw off foreign rule.
Radicals called 1848 the “springtime of the people.”

35. Revolution spread to the Austrian empire.
Metternich himself was forced to resign and flee as students joined workers in the streets of Vienna.
In Budapest, Louis Kossuth led demands for independent government, an end to serfdom, and a constitution to protect individual rights.
In Prague, Czechs made similar demands.
The government agreed to demands, but then sent troops to crush the revolts and regain power.

36. Revolts spread to Italy and the German states.
From Venice to Naples, Italian states set up independent republics.
Even the pope was expelled from Rome.
Students, workers, and peasant farmers joined liberals in Prussia.
King Frederick William of Prussia agreed to an elected assembly.

37. By 1850, the conservative governments regained control and the liberal revolutions faded.
Military power ended the rebellions.
In Prussia, the new assembly was dissolved. In Rome, the pope returned to power.
The revolutionaries lacked the mass support necessary at this time. Liberalism, socialism, and nationalism would win success in the future.

38. Unification of Italy

39. Objectives List the key obstacles to Italian unity.
Understand the roles Count Camillo Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi played in the struggle for Italy.
Describe the challenges that faced the new nation of Italy.

40. Terms and People
Camillo Cavour – a politician who worked to unify Italy
Giuseppe Garibaldi – a nationalist military leader who worked with Cavour to create an unified Italy
anarchist – person who wants to abolish all government
emigration – movement away from one’s homeland

41. How did influential leaders help to create a unified Italy?
Italy had not experienced political unity since Roman times.
That changed in the 1800s, however, when leaders such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Count Camillo Cavour worked to build a united state.

42. Napoleon’s invasions stirred Italian nationalism in the early 1800s, but there were many obstacles to unity.
Despite a common language, people identified mainly with their local regions due to frequent foreign rule.
At the Congress of Vienna, Italy was partitioned by Austria, the Hapsburg monarchs, and others.
Nationalist revolts were continually crushed by Austria.

43. Giuseppe Mazzini, a nationalist leader, founded Young Italy in the 1830s.
It was a secret society whose goal was to establish a united Italy.
Mazzini helped set up a revolutionary republic in Rome in 1849, but French forces soon toppled it.
Still, the ideas of nationalists such as Mazzini soon spread.

44. Victor Emmanuel II, the monarch of Sardinia, wanted to join other states to his own and increase his power.
Cavour was a skilled politician who reformed Sardinia’s economy
His ultimate goal was to drive Austria out of Italy and annex more provinces.
He made Count Camillo Cavour his prime minister in 1852.

45. In the aftermath, Cavour got France to agree to help Sardinia if it ever went to war with Austria.
Cavour then provoked that war and defeated Austria with France’s help.
Sardinia helped Britain and France fight Russia in the Crimean War.
With Sardinia in control of northern Italy, Cavour next turned his attention southward.

46. In southern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi led a volunteer force of 1,000 “Red Shirts.”
Garibaldi was a nationalist and ally of Mazzini.
Using weapons and ships supplied by Cavour, the Red Shirts won control of Sicily and marched toward Naples.

47. Cavour feared Garibaldi would set up his own republic in the southern part of Italy.
However, when Victor Emmanuel sent Sardinian forces to confront Garibaldi, he turned over Naples and Sicily. Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy in 1861.
Italy won the province of Venetia during the Austro-Prussian War and won Rome during the Franco-Prussian War. It was finally a united land.

48. Italy became a unified state between 1858 and 1870.

49. Regional rivalries and differences made it hard to solve problems.
The north was rich and had a tradition of business and culture, whereas the south was rural and poor.
Popes resented seizure of the Papal States and urged Italian Catholics not to cooperate with the new government.
Italy faced many problems once it was unified.

50. Under Victor Emmanuel, Italy became a constitutional monarchy.
Italy had a two-house legislature.
The lower house was elected, but only a small number of men had the right to vote.
The king appointed members to the upper house, which could veto laws passed by the lower house.

51. Turmoil broke out in the late 1800s as the left struggled against a conservative Italian government.
In response, the government extended suffrage to more men, passed laws to improve social conditions, and set out to win an overseas empire in Africa.
Socialists organized strikes and anarchists turned to violence.

52. Italy developed economically, particularly after 1900.
Industries developed in northern regions and people moved to cities.
Though a population explosion created tensions, many people chose to emigrate, which calmed things at home.

53. Unification of Germany

54. Objectives
Identify several events that promoted German unity during the early 1800s.
Explain how Bismarck unified Germany.
Analyze the basic political organization of the new German empire.

55. Terms and People
Otto von Bismarck – a leader from Prussia who succeeding in unifying German-speaking states under Prussian rule
chancellor – the highest official of a monarch
Realpolitik – realistic politics based on the needs of the state
annex – to take control of, usually referring to land

56. Terms and People (continued)
kaiser – emperor
Reich – German word meaning empire or nation

57. How did Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, lead the drive for German unity?
German-speaking people lived in several small states in the early 1800s.
This changed when Otto von Bismarck became chancellor in Prussia and decided to build a unified German state.

58. He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire.
He organized several German states into the Rhine Confederation.
He made trade easier in the region.
Napoleon’s invasions into German-speaking states produced changes in these territories.
As German-speaking people fought together to free themselves from French rule, they began to consider creating a united German state.

59. Creating a unified German state was difficult.
Unification would require dissolving the small governments of each German state. Instead, the Congress of Vienna created a weak alliance called the German Confederation, headed by Austria.
Prussia created an economic union in the 1830s called the Zollverein, but Germany remained fragmented politically.
In 1848, German liberals offered a throne to Prussian ruler Frederick William IV, but he rejected a crown offered by the common people.

60. The situation changed when Otto von Bismarck rose to power in Prussia.
He became prime minister in 1862 and then rose to chancellor.
Bismarck was determined to unite Germany under Prussian rule.
Rather than diplomacy, he favored a policy of “blood and iron.”

61. Realpolitik was an ideology that favored power over principle.
He then led Prussia into three wars.
These actions all paved the way for German unification.
Bismarck mastered Realpolitik and strengthened the Prussian army.

62. Otto von Bismarck took methodical steps to increase Prussia’s power and territory.
Next, he attacked Austria and annexed several states.
He dissolved the German Confederation and replaced it with one led by Prussia.
He formed an alliance with Austria, then seized provinces from Denmark.

63. The unification of Germany under Prussian rule occurred mainly between 1865 and 1871.

64. The Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870.
Bismarck stoked tension between France and Prussia by editing a telegram to make it appear that King William I of Prussia had insulted a French ambassador.
After a furious Napoleon III declared war, Prussia and other German states easily defeated the French within weeks.

65. Leaders in many German states urged William I of Prussia to take the title kaiser.
German nationalists celebrated the beginning of the second Reich, the second German empire after the Holy Roman Empire.
Bismarck wrote a constitution and set up a two-house legislature. However, real power remained with the emperor and chancellor.

66. Germany Strengthens

67. Objectives
Describe how Germany became an industrial giant.
Explain why Bismarck was called the Iron Chancellor.
List the policies of Kaiser William II.

68. Terms and People
Kulturkampf – the “battle for civilization” in which Bismarck took several measures to make Catholics put loyalty to the state above allegiance to the Church
William II – the kaiser of Germany beginning in 1888, who asked Bismarck to resign
social welfare – programs to help certain groups of people in a society

69. How did Germany increase its power after unifying in 1871?
After the Franco-Prussian war ended, Germany became the dominant power in Europe.
It increased its power by becoming an industrial giant.

70. After Germany unified, it became the industrial leader of the European continent.
Germany’s iron and coal resources, as well as its disciplined workforce, helped make this possible.
The nation had a rapidly growing population, which fed industrialization.
Germany had also laid the groundwork for progress in the 1850s and 1860s by founding large manufacturing companies and building railroads.

71. Both the government and industrialists supported scientific research and economic development.
Scientists were encouraged to develop new materials and were hired to solve technical problems in factories.
The government issued a single currency, reorganized the banking system, and coordinated railroad lines among the various German states.
During a worldwide depression in the late 1800s, Germany raised tariffs to protect home industries from foreign competition.

72. He wanted to keep France weak and sought strong links with Austria and Russia.
He did not want to compete with British naval power.
Bismarck pursued several foreign policy goals as the “Iron Chancellor” of Germany.
On the domestic front, Bismarck was ruthless.
He wanted to ensure complete loyalty to the state.

73. Bismarck began the Kulturkampf, a campaign against the Catholic Church, in 1871.
He distrusted Catholics because he believed their first loyalty was to the pope instead of the German state.
He had laws passed that increased state power over Church actions.
When Catholics rallied behind the Church, Bismarck ended the Kulturkampf in 1878.

74. In addition to Catholics, Bismarck targeted socialists.
He worried that socialists would create a revolution among German workers.
Bismarck dissolved socialist groups, shut down their newspapers, and banned their meetings.

75. When these measures failed, Bismarck sponsored laws to protect workers.
His goal was to woo workers away from socialism.
Germany became a leader in social reform with its health and old-age insurance.
Still, the socialist Social Democratic party continued to grow. By 1912, it held the most seats in the Reichstag, Germany’s legislature.

76. William II succeeded his grandfather William I as kaiser in 1888.
He asked Bismarck to resign as chancellor, saying, “There is only one master in the Reich, and that is I.”
He believed that his right to rule came from God.

77. William was very confident and wanted to leave his mark.
His government provided social welfare programs and services, such as public transportation, electricity, and excellent public schools.
He also developed the already huge German military, hoping to win an overseas empire like those of Britain and France.

78. Reform and Reaction in Russia

79. Objectives
Describe major obstacles to progress in Russia.
Explain why tsars followed a cycle of absolutism, reform, and reaction.
Understand why the problems of industrialization contributed to the outbreak of revolution.

80. Terms and People
colossus – a giant
Alexander II – ruler of Russia who came to the throne in 1855; responsible for some reforms in Russia, but was eventually assassinated by radicals
Crimean War – a war that broke out when Russia invaded Ottoman lands along the Danube; ended in Russian defeat
emancipation – the act of freeing someone, usually from slavery or serfdom

81. Terms and People (continued)
zemstvo – an elected assembly in Russia that was responsible for road repair, schools, and agriculture at a local level
pogrom – a violent mob attack on Jewish people
refugees – people who flee their homeland to seek safety elsewhere
Duma – an elected national legislature in Russia
Peter Stolypin – prime minister appointed by Tsar Nicholas to restore order through arrests, pogroms, and execution; attempted reforms but was ultimately assassinated

82. Why did industrialization and reform come more slowly to Russia than to Western Europe?
Efforts to modernize Russia had little success because tsars imprisoned or exiled critics.
As the twentieth century dawned, Russia was a hotbed of civil unrest.

83. Russia was a major world power by 1815, but it was also economically undeveloped.
Russia was a colossus—the largest and most populous nation in Europe—and had abundant natural resources.
However, it had a very autocratic government.
Russian rulers resisted reforms that would lead to modernization, fearing they would be a threat to absolute rule.

84. Landowning nobles at the top resisted change and reforms.
The middle class was weak and small.
Most people were serfs, bound to the land.
Many Russians knew serfdom was inefficient, but landowners had no interest in developing industry.
One obstacle to progress was Russia’s very rigid social structure.

85. Tsars ruled Russia with absolute power.
Whenever the tsars made liberal reforms, they eventually canceled them to maintain the support of the nobles.
While the governments of other European nations changed, Russia remained an absolute monarchy.

86. Alexander II inherited the throne during the Crimean War in 1855.
The war began when Russia tried to seize Ottoman lands, and ended in Russian defeat.
The war showed how backward Russia was. People demanded change.
Though peasants remained poor, emancipation was a turning point that led to the drive for more reform.
In response to pressure, Alexander agreed to the emancipation of the serfs.

87. The Reforms of Alexander II Emancipation of the serfs
Establishment of local government in the form of zemstvos, or elected assemblies
Legal reforms such as trial by jury
Reduction in military service

88. The reforms did not satisfy the Russians, who wanted a constitution or more revolutionary changes.
Socialists tried to convince peasants to rebel, which didn’t work. Radicals became angry and assassinated Alexander II.
Alexander III took the throne and embarked on a crackdown. He increased the power of the secret police and exiled critics.

89. He forced them to live in restricted areas.
Pogroms against the Jewish communities became common.
Many Jews left Russia and became refugees. A large number emigrated to the United States.
Persecution of Russian Jews also increased under Alexander III.
Groups such as Poles, Ukrainians, Armenians, Finns, and Muslims also faced persecution.

90. Russia finally industrialized during the late 1800s.
Despite progress, political and social problems worsened as workers faced poor conditions in factories and urban slums.
Tsar Nicholas II, son of Alexander III, focused on economic development. His government encouraged the building of railroads and secured foreign investment.

91. Russia entered a war with Japan in 1904 and suffered humiliating defeats.
Losses abroad fed discontent at home. Protesters poured into the streets and workers went on strike.
On a Sunday in 1905, a priest organized a peaceful march in St. Petersburg. The tsar’s soldiers fired on the crowd, killing or wounding hundreds, in an incident known as “Bloody Sunday.”

92. Discontent grew, strikes increased, and rural peasants demanded land.
Nicholas announced major reforms, including a pledge to summon a Duma.
However, the tsar dissolved the Duma in The pattern of reform and reaction continued.
Bloody Sunday was a turning point for Russians, who felt they could no longer trust the tsar.

93. Nicholas appointed Peter Stolypin as prime minister in 1906.
Peter Stolypin worked to restore order with arrests and executions.
He recognized the need for change and introduced several very limited reforms.
It wasn’t enough, and Russia still roiled with unrest. Stolypin was assassinated in 1911.

94. Nationalism in the Ottoman and Hapsburg Empires

95. Objectives
Describe how nationalism contributed to the decline of the Hapsburg empire.
List the main characteristics of the Dual Monarchy.
Understand how the growth of nationalism affected the Ottoman empire.

96. Terms and People
Francis Joseph – Hapsburg emperor of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Ferenc Deák – a moderate Hungarian leader who helped work out the compromise that created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Dual Monarchy – an agreement that made Austria and Hungary different states with their own constitutions and parliaments, but with shared ministries of finance, defense, and foreign affairs

97. How did the desire for national independence among ethnic groups weaken and ultimately destroy the Austrian and Ottoman empires?
The Austrian Hapsburgs and Ottoman Turks ruled empires with diverse ethnic groups.
As nationalist feelings grew among these groups, the power of the empires declined.

98. Europe was a patchwork of different nationalities between 1800 and 1914.
Nationalists pushed for self- rule, which brought about the decline of the Austrian and Ottoman empires.

99. During the early 1800s, the Hapsburg rulers of Austria tried to prevent change and ignored liberal demands.
Nevertheless, factories sprung up by the 1840s in Hapsburg lands and caused changes, including the growth of cities.
They even tried to prevent industrialization, fearing that it would change the empire’s traditional way of life.

100. Austria was an empire of very diverse people with rival goals
Austria was an empire of very diverse people with rival goals. Nationalist feelings grew during the mid-1800s.
Nationalists made demands of the Hapsburg rulers. They wanted self-government.
A nationalist revolt broke out in 1848, and the Hapsburg government crushed it.

101. The Hungarians wanted the right to rule themselves.
The new emperor made some reforms including the formation of a legislature.
This did not satisfy the Hungarians, however, because the body was led by German-speaking Austrians.
During the 1848 uprising, 18-year-old Francis Joseph inherited the Hapsburg throne. He would rule until 1916.

102. A moderate Hungarian leader named Ferenc Deák helped to work out a solution.
The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was formed in 1867.
After Austria’s defeat in its war with Prussia, Hungarians pressured the Hapsburgs for a compromise.

103. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
Separate
Each had its own constitution.
Each had its own parliament.
Shared
Francis Joseph ruled both, as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary.
They shared ministries of finance, defense, and foreign affairs.

104. Hungarians were happy, but others were not.
Slavic people still lacked a voice in government. Nationalist leaders called on them to unite.
Despite the compromise, nationalist unrest continued to increase in the empire.
Unrest among nationalists paralyzed governments in the early 1900s.

105. The Ottomans ruled a multinational empire that stretched from Eastern Europe to North Africa and the Middle East.
Many revolts broke out against the Ottomans in the 1800s as nationalist groups sought self- rule.
The Ottoman empire faced the same problem as the Austrian empire.

106. Some states gained independence from the Ottomans by 1878.

107. The Ottoman empire faced challenges from other European powers in the mid-1800s.
Russia pushed south toward Istanbul and the Black Sea.
Austria-Hungary took control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Britain and France eyed Ottoman lands in the Middle East and North Africa.
European powers viewed the Ottoman empire as the “sick man of Europe.”

108. Rivalries contributed to conflicts in the Balkans.
Russia fought several wars against the Ottomans. Other powers also took sides.
Subject people revolted and then fought among themselves.
This “Balkan powder keg” would explode into World War I.
Ottoman soldiers in the Balkans