Principles of Training

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1 Principles of Training
Three Major Principles: Overload, Specificity, and Reversibility. Overload (OL): means that a system or tissue must be exercised at a level beyond which it is presently accustomed to in order for a training effect to occur. Tissue OL Adapt OL Adapt OL No Adapt.

2 Specificity: the training effect is specific to the muscle fibers involved in the activity & energy system involved. + Arm vs leg + Slow vs fast-twitch fibers + Endurance (capillary & mitochondria) vs resistance (contractile proteins) training. Reversibility: simply indicates that the gains are quickly lost when the overload is removed. Like when stop training, the training effect is quickly lost.

3 VO2 Max Values in Healthy & Diseased Population
. VO2 Max Values in Healthy & Diseased Population Per Kg BW Differences in VO2max per Kg reflect differences in training status. Differences in Vo2max relate to differences in Cardiac Stroke Volume

4 Changes in VO2 Max with Aerobic Training
. Changes in VO2 Max with Aerobic Training Training increases VO2max by increasing heart stroke volume but also by increasing Oxygen extraction by tissues(increases in a-v O2 difference.

5 Factors increasing stroke volume (SV)
SV = EDV – ESV EDV increases due to: a) increase in ventricle size, b) Increase in venous return (preload), ESV decreases due to: a) Increase in myocardial contractility, & b) Decrease in resistance to blood flow out of the heart (afterload). EDV = end diastolic volume, ESV = end systolic volume

6 Arteriovenous O2 Difference (a-v O2 Diff.)
In endurance exercise, SV causes 50% of the increase in VO2 max; O2 extraction (a-v O2) is responsible for the other 50%. Increase in a-v O2 diff could be due to: a) Increase in % of blood flowing to working muscles and b) Increase in muscle capillaries & mitochondria. .

7 . Detraining & VO2 Max With detraining Vo2max decreases first as stroke volume (SV) decreases, later when a-v O2 (or oxygen extraction by tissues) decreases

8 Mitochondrial Content & Training/Detraining Adaptations
With detraining the number of mitochondria in muscle decrease rapidly (within 1-2 weeks) but it takes longer (3-4 weeks) for training to increase it.

9 Role of training Intensity & Duration on Mitochondria Citrate synthase.
In type IIa fibers training increase CS independent of intensity or duration In type II b fibers citrate synthase activity increases more the more intense or longer the training.

10 With more Mitochondria a Lower ADP is needed to achieve the same O2 consumption.
With Low ADP Less PC hydrolysis Less Glycolysis More endurance VO2 ml/min ` [ADP] mM

11 Increased mitochondria number & capillary density increase
Slower blood velocity & larger Capillary surface area ` With training: Muscle Glycogen & PC Increased mitochondria number & capillary density increase rate of free-fatty-acid utilization, preserving plasma glucose, muscle glycogen and phosphocreatine (PC)

12 Increased number of mitochondria with training decrease Lactate & H+ formation resulting in less decrease in blood pH

13 Biochemical Adaptations & LA Removal
Mitochondrial adaptations to endurance training results in: A smaller O2 deficit due to a more rapid increase in VO2 at the onset of work. Muscle Gly PC & blood Glu sparing due to increased fat metabolism and lower ADP. A reduction in La & H+ formation An increase in Lactic removal (through glucose synthesis and through oxidation)

14 Blood flow adaptations due to training favor lactate removal and decrease its production
Kidney velocity Effect of endurance training on redistribution of blood flow (less needed in working muscle, more goes to liver and kidneys) favors lactate removal and decrease lactate production during exercise at a fixed submaximal oxygen consumption.

15 Exercise & Resistance to Infection
Effects of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) follows a “J”-shaped pattern relative to the amount & intensity of exercise. Runners experience 6 times more URTI than non participating after a marathon. Training 96 km/wk had twice the risk of URTI than those doing 32 km/wk. No increase risk of URTI in races of 5 to 21.1 km per wk. Moderate exercisers experienced half as many days URTI symptoms than sedentary group.

16 Variables(NE,E,LA,Ve,HR) showed training responses to one leg exercise.
When the other leg was trained (orange), all variables started & responded as if they had never been exposed to exercise. There was no transfer of training effect from one leg to the other,nor to heart or respiration. This shows that adaptations in these variables are determined by the training state of the specific muscle group engaged in exercise. SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING

17 Influence of Gender on training
Men & women respond to training program in a similar fashion. However, training should be individualized & match the level of fitness and maturation of the individual because of the difference in the degree of improvement.

18 Influence of Beginning Level of Fitness
Amount of training improvement is greater in those with lower fitness level at the beginning of training. Improvement in VO2 of 50% in men with heart disease compared with 10-15% in normal active adults, or 3-5% in elite athletes (however, in these this small improvement may lead to a gold medal).

19 Genetics Influence Subjects with high genetic endowment of aerobic capacity respond more to training than those with other genetic profiles Training can greatly improve performance, but is only a complement to genetically inherited high aerobic capacity, endurance and performance.

20 Component of a Training Session
Warm-Up: Increase cardiac output & blood flow to muscles; increase muscle temperature which elevates enzyme activity; perform stretching exercises to avoid injuries. Duration: 5-20 min (depends on environment & nature of activity). Workout: the body of training session. Duration: aerobic activity min/day, minimum 10 min bouts. - Intensity: minimum 60% of max to improve VO2max, 40% for health effects. Cool Down: To gradually return to resting level. Duration: min (depends on environment, age, fitness level, & nature of training session).

21 Training to Improve Aerobic Power
Endurance training improves VO2 max by increasing: Maximal cardiac output Increasing a-v O2 Difference Specificity is critical (runners run; swimmers swim; cyclists cycle etc…). Three aerobic methods: Low-intensity (brisk walking) long duration (30 min), & High-intensity short duration (10 min) continuous training. Interval training (combination), Training intensity (not duration) is the most important factor in improving VO2 max. Reaching lactate threshold & improving movement efficiency are also important factors in training.

22 Training to Improve Anaerobic Power
To Improve the ATP-PC System: Energy needed for weight lifting, 50 m dash… Short high intensity intervals (2-10 sec). Rest intervals = sec. Set repetitions: depend on fitness level, environmental conditions, & others. To Improve the Glycolytic System: Bouts >10 sec of max effort (20-60 sec). Physically & psychologically demanding. Drastically reduce muscle glycogen stores. Alternate hard & light training days.

23 Training To Improve Muscular Strength
Aim to increase maximum force (1 RM) that can be generated by a particular muscle group or to increase muscle endurance (number of times a maximum or submaximum force can be repeated). Three categories of muscle contractions: 1) isometric (static); 2) isotonic (dynamic); & 3) isokinetic (combination). General principles: Overlaod principle, Specificity: Involve muscles used in competition High Resistance Training for strength: Intensity = 2-10 repetitions maximum (RM) per set. Sets = 2-4 /day; Frequency = 3-4 days/week. Low Resistance Training for muscle endurance: 20+ repetitions at a fraction (v.g. ½) of RM per set 4-8 sets/day (high “volume”) ; 3-4 days/week. Combinations of the two.

24 Short-term (8-20 weeks) strength training increases strength mostly because of neural factors (little hypertrophy). Gain in strength in long term training is also due to increase in muscle size (mostly muscle fiber hypertrophy). Training of one arm results in tranfer of the neural adaptations to the untrained arm (but not of the hypertrophy). Strength (high intensity) training does not increase mitochondria or capillaries but increases muscle fibre size.Low intensity does both.

25 Isometric (static) Strength Measurement

26 Training To Improve Flexibility
Two types: Static stretches(hold): superior to dynamic because: Less chance of injury Less muscle spindle activity Less muscle soreness Dynamic stretches(move)

27 Common Training Mistakes
Over Training. Under Training. Using not Sports Specific Exercises & Work-rate Intensities. Failure to Plan Long-Term Training Schedules for Specific Goals. Failure to Taper Training Before Competition.


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