1. Unit 2: Systems of Matter and Energy
All processes on Earth involve the flow of energy and the cycling of matter.

2. 2.1 Earth’s Energy
Energy moves through the Earth’s systems in 3 different ways:
Radiation: The movement of energy as visible light, ultraviolet radiation, and other types of electromagnetic waves. Ex. Sunlight heating the Earth.

3. Energy moves through the Earth’s systems in 3 different ways:
2. Conduction: The transfer of heat energy through the collisions of the atoms or molecules of a substance. Ex. Walking barefoot on the hot ground in the summer.

4. Energy moves through the Earth’s systems in 3 different ways:
3. Convection: The movement of matter caused by the difference in density. Density is the ratio of mass to volume. Ex. Boiling water/Earth’s interior.

5. Convection moves thermal energy through a liquid or gas
As the pot boils, the water becomes less dense and rises. Cooler, denser water falls to the bottom of the pot

6. Three forms of energy flow

7. Internal Energy
Most thermal energy we feel comes directly from the sun
Solar energy drives the winds, ocean currents, water cycle and supports life on Earth
Energy transfer is important between the layers of Earth
Convection currents move the mantle and in the liquid core
Energy moves by conduction through the solid inner core

8. Earth’s External Energy: Exploration 2
Most of the thermal energy we feel at the surface is from the sun
Income Equals Outgo: In order for the Earth’s surface temperature to remain stable, the total amount of incoming and outgoing radiation must be balanced.
Reflection and Absorption: About 45% of the light that reaches earth is reflected and absorbed by gas molecules and other things in the atmosphere. Some light is reflected back by the Earth’s surface.

9. Reflection and Absorption
Albedo: The percentage of light that a particular surface will reflect.
Ice has a high albedo
Forests have a low albedo

10. Temperature Change
If the amount of energy entering the Earth’s atmosphere equals the energy leaving, the temperature of the Earth remains stable
Albedo impacts local climates, based on how much energy is being reflected
Albedo impacts global climates due to areas covered in glaciers and the amount of ice melt

11. Temperature Change Positive Feedback vs. Negative Feedback (pg. 50).
In a positive feedback loop, change leads to further change of the same type. Ex. Higher temps causing ice to melt and decreasing the earth albedo, which leads to further warming.
In a negative feedback loop, a process counteracts a change, slowing the change. Negative feedback helps maintain the stability of a system.

12. Exploration 3: Distribution of Sunlight
The amount of incoming and outgoing energy can differ from place to place
Energy is not only about movement between the surface and the atmosphere, but also from place to place within the atmosphere and oceans

13. Exploration 3: Distribution of Sunlight
Latitude and Sunlight:
The amount of radiation that any specific region of the Earth recieves depends on the angle of the sun in the sky. The higher the angle, the more radiation that reaches the earth.
Latitude: Measure the distance north and south of the equator.

14. Surface Ocean Currents: help distribute solar energy around the globe.
Water at the equator is warmer than water at the poles
As warm water circulates, it warms cooler areas
Some energy is released into the atmosphere through conduction and radiation

15. Atmospheric Circulation: The global wind system is driven by the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface.
~Wind moves solar energy toward the poles through convection ~Air is in constant motion ~Cool air is warmer than denser air, so it sinks

16. Redistribution of Energy: Over time, the flow of air and water redistribute solar energy over the Earth’s surface.
Ocean water holds more energy than air
Transfer of energy takes place mostly through water
The flow of air and water balances solar energy on the Earth

17. Exploration 4: Earth’s Internal Energy
Collisional Heating: Moving objects have kinetic energy. When objects collide some of the kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy.
Accretion: Gradual build up as smaller bodies collide to form bigger bodies. This is the accepted model as to how the solar system formed.

18. Collisional Heating Every moving object has kinetic energy
When objects collide, the kinetic energy is transformed to thermal energy
The thermal energy heats up the moving objects, possibly causing them to melt or vaporize
As this process occurred when the Earth was formed, its thermal energy increased

19. Contraction and Settling
Contraction and Settling: Contraction caused further heating of the earth. Once the earth was molten, heavier elements settled toward the core of the earth further heating it.
When an object falls toward the Earth’s center, it loses energy that is called gravitational potential energy – this caused more heating to the Earth’s interior

20. Radioactive Decay:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons which decay over time.
Energy is released when they decay
Radiogenic heating is when surrounding atoms absorb the energy when the isotopes decay
This process will keep the Earth’s interior hot for billions of years

21. 2.2 Minerals
Element: Is a substance that cannot be broken into a simpler substance by chemical means.
Mineral: A substance that has specific characteristics. It is a solid substance that has a characteristic chemical composition throughout----- it is made of the same material throughout. Minerals make up the rock that forms Earth’s crust.
Compound: A substance composed of atoms of 2 or more different elements that are held together by chemical bonds. Ex. (quartz SiO2, Halite NaCl).

22. What is a mineral? Mineral Characteristics shared by all minerals:
1. Natural
occurs naturally
NOT manmade

23. What is a mineral? 1. Natural 2. Inorganic Is not alive
Was never alive

24. What is a mineral? 1. Natural 2. Inorganic 3. Crystalline
Atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern

25. What is a mineral? 1. Natural 2. Inorganic 3. Crystalline
4. Definite chemical composition
Chemical formula
SiO2 is Quartz

26. What is a mineral? 1. Natural 2. Inorganic 3. Crystalline
4. Definite chemical composition
5. Solid
Not a gas, not a liquid

27. How will we remember this?
Natural
Inorganic
Crystalline
Definite chemical composition
Solid

28. Mineral Characteristics shared by all minerals: Now I Can Define mineralS!
Natural
Inorganic
Crystalline
Definite chemical composition
Solid

29. B. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
First impression
Not very reliable because lots of minerals can occur in many different colors

30. Quartz
Purple Amethyst

31. Fluorite
Clear
Blue
Green
Purple

32. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
The TRUE color of a mineral
Color of a mineral’s powder

33. Streak
Minerals with a hardness greater than “7” usually don’t create a streak on the streak plate because they are harder than the Porcelain tile (unless the streak plate is specially made).

34. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
A mineral’s resistance to being scratched
Mohs Hardness Scale from 1-10
Hardness depends on how “tightly packed” the atoms are

35. Mohs Hardness Scale Hardest Softest Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite
Apatite
Potassium feldspar
Quartz
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond
Hardest

37. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Cleavage
Splits along definite planes

38. “Cleav” = to split
Cleaver

40. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Cleavage
5. Fracture
Breaks irregularly, jagged edges

41. Fracture

42. Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Hardness
4. Cleavage
5. Fracture
6. Luster
How light shines off a mineral
Metallic or Nonmetallic

43. Luster
Metallic
Nonmetallic

44. Physical Properties of Minerals: Used for Identification (I.D.)
Color
Streak
Hardness
Cleavage
Fracture
Luster

45. Special Properties Magnetism Double refraction Fluorescence
Phosphorescence
Piezoelectric

46. D. Identification Tests
1. Hardness
2. Streak (True Color)
3. Acid Test
Use hydrochloric acid
Tests for carbonate (calcite)

47. 3 types of rocks

48. 3 types of rocks There are 3 types of rocks found on Earth:
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Knowing the differences between these 3 types of rocks allows us to learn about Earth’s past.

49. Igneous Rocks - Formation
Igneous Rocks are formed by melting, cooling, and crystallization of other rocks.
Igneous rocks form as a result of volcanic activity, hot spots, and melting that occurs in the mantle.

50. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are common along plate boundaries or mantle hot spots

51. Igneous Rocks - Classification
Igneous rocks are classified using their texture in the following ways:
Glassy
Aphanitic (no visible crystals)
Phaneritic (visible crystals)
Porphyritic (Some visible and some not visible crystals)

52. Igneous Rocks - Texture
Crystal size is used to classify igneous rocks.
Crystals form as the rock cools, and the crystal size can tell us a lot about its cooling history:
The larger the crystals, the slower it cooled.

53. Igneous Rocks - Texture
Glassy igneous rocks have no crystal structure, and probably formed by very rapid cooling (such as on the surface of a lava, or when a lava enters the water.)

54. Igneous Rocks - Texture
Aphanitic rocks have no visible crystals, and probably formed by fast cooling above ground.

55. Igneous Rocks - Texture
Phaneritic rocks have visible crystals, and probably formed by slow cooling below ground.

56. Igneous Rocks - Texture
Porphyritic rocks have both visible and nonvisible crystals, and probably formed by two different cooling events.

57. Igneous Rocks - Classification
Dark igneous rocks are formed from basaltic or mafic magma. (Mafic because it contains a lot of magnesium and iron).
The magma that forms these rocks is usually very hot (around 1000°C) and viscous (about the same viscosity as ketchup.)

58. Igneous Rocks - Classification
Light colored igneous rocks are formed from silicic (high silica content) or felsic magmas.
The magmas that form these rocks is usually more cool, (lower than 850°C), and more viscous (about the viscosity of peanut butter.)

59. Igneous rocks - Formations
Structures and formations seen in igneous rocks include:
Hexagonal columnar joints
Pahoehoe lava flows
Dikes, sills, and batholiths (plutons)
Pillow basalts
Volcanoes

60. Igneous Rocks - Examples
The most common types of igneous rocks include:
Rhyolite
Andesite
Basalt
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro

61. Sedimentary Rocks - Formation
Sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation of other rocks.
Sedimentary rocks form in areas where water, wind, or gravity deposit sediments.

62. Sedimentary rocks - formation
Sedimentary rocks are likely to form in areas such as:
Deltas
Beaches
Rivers
Glaciers
Sand dunes
Shallow seas
Deep oceans

63. Sedimentary rocks - Classification
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two groups:
Clastic rocks
Chemically formed rocks

64. Sedimentary rocks – Classification
Sedimentary rocks are Clastic if they are made of pieces of other rocks that have been weathered and eroded.
Clastic rocks are grouped based on the size of grain that they are made from.

65. Sedimentary rocks - Classification
Very small particles make up mudrock.
Medium sized particles make up sandstone.
Large particles make up conglomerates.

66. Sedimentary rocks - Classification
Sedimentary rocks that form from chemical processes are called biochemical rocks (formed from living things) or Chemical precipitates (formed from lakes or shallow seas.)

67. Sedimentary rocks - formations
Structures and formations seen in sedimentary rocks include:
Stratification
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Fossils

68. Sedimentary rocks - Examples
Some of the most common types of sedimentary rocks include:
Conglomerate
Sandstone
Shale
Limestone
Gypsum
Oolites
Chert (including black flint and red jasper)

69. Metamorphic rocks - Formation
Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and pressure changing one type of rock into another type of rock.
Metamorphic rocks form near lava intrusions, at plate subduction zones, and in deep mountain roots.

70. Metamorphic rocks - Formation
Lava intrusions can provide heat that causes metamorphic rocks to form. These small areas of metamorphic rock form from contact metamorphosis.

71. Metamorphic rocks - Formation
Rocks that metamorphose because of increasing heat and pressure found at plate subduction zones and in deep mountain roots form large areas of metamorphic rock through regional metamorphosis.

72. Metamorphic rocks - Classification
Metamorphic rocks are classified into 2 major groups:
Foliated
Nonfoliated

73. Metamorphic rocks - Classification
Foliated rocks form when differential pressure causes minerals to form in layers.
These rocks will have stripes or planes that they will break easily along.
These “stripes” don’t usually line up with the original bedding planes in sedimentary rocks.

74. Metamorphic rocks
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks formed in areas where the pressure from all sides was equal, so there is no “linear” quality to the rocks.

75. Metamorphic rocks - Formations
Structures and formations seen in metamorphic rocks include:
Folding
Plastic deformation
Stretching
Alternating dark and light layers (gneissic foliation)

76. Metamorphic rocks - Examples
Some common types of metamorphic rock include:
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
Amphibolite
Marble
Quartzite
Metaconglomerate

77. Metamorphic rocks - Charted

78. Cycles
Just as organisms are interconnected to each other they are connected to the physical environment as well.
Name several examples of non-living things that organisms, such as yourself, require to live.
Oxygen, water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are a few examples of these that we will discuss in this section.
Not what roles they play though. We already talked about that in the previous chapter.
You will learn how these substances cycle through the ecosystems so that they may maintain their availability to living organisms.

79. Cycles in Nature
Biogeochemical cycles = Cycles in which water and minerals are recycled and reused by moving from the non-living portion of the environment into living things and back again.
Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle

80. In the margin of your notes, identify the steps numbered 1-6.
Condensation

81. Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen, another essential element, must also be cycled.
The atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen gas, N2. But most organisms cannot use nitrogen gas.
The nitrogen cycle is all about getting the nitrogen in the atmosphere into forms that can be used by organisms.
Recall, Nitrogen is used for
The amino acids of proteins.
In the nitrogenous bases of DNA & RNA
The nitrogen cycle is the process in which nitrogen circulates among the air, soil, water, and organisms in an ecosystem.

82. Nitrogen Cycle

83. Nitrogen Cycle: Macro Perspective
Assimilation
Ammonification
Nitrogen fixation
Denitrification
Nitrification

84. Carbon and Oxygen Cycles
Carbon and oxygen are critical for life on Earth, and their cycles are tied closely together.
Just as with water, these are both cycled so organisms always have a supply available.
The carbon cycle is the continuous movement of carbon from the nonliving environment into living things and back.

85. The Carbon Cycle
Starting with atmospheric carbon dioxide, the carbon cycle begins with plants and other autotrophs absorbing CO2 and converting into usable sugars and starches.
This process is known as photosynthesis.

86. The Carbon Cycle COMBUSTION Man also plays a role.
We are responsible for burning fossil fuels, eating, releasing carbon dioxide, and dying.
These all contribute to the cycling of carbon.
COMBUSTION

87. Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is often found in soil and rock as calcium phosphate, which dissolves in water to form phosphate.
The roots of plants absorb phosphate. Humans and animals that eat the plants reuse the organic phosphorus.
When the humans and animals die, phosphorus is returned to the soil.

88. Phosphorus Cycle
Like water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, phosphorus must be cycled in order for an ecosystem to support life.
Remember, phosphorus is an important element in ATP and DNA.
It must cycle just like the other molecules.
The phosphorus cycle is the movement of phosphorus in different chemical forms from the surroundings to organisms and then back to the surroundings.

89. The Phosphorus Cycle