1. Unit IV: Political Organization of Space
AP Human Geography
Copeland

2. I. Political Geography
The study of the organization and distribution of political phenomena

3. Territory
The effort to control territory is a central motivate of humans
The territory of the world is almost completely divided into national units
Antarctica debated (1959 Treaty of Antarctica)

4. Territoriality
Territoriality is a key component of modern political culture. As defined by geographer, Robert Sack, territoriality is “the attempt by an individual or group to affect, influence, or control people, phenomena or relationships, by delimiting and asserting control over a geographic area.”
Territorial Integrity –
a government has the right to keep the borders and territory of a state in tact and free from attack.

5. State 1.an independent political unit occupying a defined territory
2. permanently populated territory
3. full sovereignty (independence to control internal affairs)
4. must be recognized by other states

6. World States
189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 or 196 states in the world today (only 50 in the 1940s)
193 recognized by the United Nations as of United States recognizes (Kosovo)
Number depends on who you ask…
Newest state-South Suda

7. Issues defining states
Political differences can cause some territories to not be recognized as independent.
Examples:
Korea (2 states, one nationality)-multistate nation
China and Taiwan-2 states?
China claims Taiwan and the U.S. agrees, even though Taiwan has its
own gov’t and its own currency
Western Sahara (currently part of Morocco)
Once a colony of Spain; war broke out over WS b/t Morocco and Mauritania;
Mauritania withdrew, Morocco now claims 2/3rd of land; Sahrawi Arabs
(SADR) claim the rest; exploited for fishing, phosphate and oil
Greenland (Denmark)
Greenland controls internal affairs, Denmark controls foreign affairs
Greenland is referred to as a “constituent state”

8. Nation
A group of people with a common culture occupying a particular territory, bound together by a strong sense of unity arising from shared beliefs and customs
Nations are “imagined communities” -Benedict Anderson
-imagined = you will never meet all the people in your nation
-community = you see yourself as part of it

9. The nations we perceive as “natural” and “always existing” are relatively recent phenomena.
In 1648, Europe was divided into dozens of small territories.

10. The Nation-State
A state whose territorial extent coincides with that occupied by a distinct nation or people
An entity whose members feel a natural connection by sharing language, religion, or some other cultural trait
Examples of possible Nation-States: Iceland, Portugal, Poland, Japan
*There are no true, pure nation-states in the world today

11. Stateless Nation
Nations that do not possess a national territory even with a larger multinational state
Palestine, Kurds

12. Multinational State A state with more than one nation.
The Former Yugoslavia

13. Multistate Nation
A nation with more than one state (Transylvania, Korea)
Transylvania – homeland for both Romanians and Hungarians.

14. Vlad the Impaler, leader of Wallachia/Transylvania

15. II. Spatial Characteristics of States
Largest Size
Russia 17.1 million square kilometers
Other large states: China,
Canada, United States and Australia

16. Spatial Characteristics of States
Smallest Size
City-state: sovereign state compromised entirely of a city and it’s countryside
Singapore, Monaco, San Marino
Microstates: very small land areas
Smallest: Monaco
1.5 square kilometers
Other examples: Singapore, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta,
San Marino and Bahrain

17. Spatial Characteristics of States
5 basic shapes
Compact
Prorupt
Elongated
Fragmented
Perforated

18. Shape – Compact Compact
Most efficient form is a circle with a capital in the center
Compact size
Uruguay, Zimbabwe, Poland
Advantages?

19. Examples of Compact States
Poland Zimbabwe

20. Shape - Prorupt
Nearly compact but posses one or more narrow extensions of territory
Proruptions can be natural or artificial
isolate a portion of a state-Ex. Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Namibia

21. Examples of Prorupted States
Democratic Rep. of the Congo Namibia

22. Shape - Elongated Long and Narrow Distance from the capital is greater
A large amount of diversity of climate, resources, and people
National cohesion difficult
Ex. Norway, Vietnam, Chile, Italy, Malawi

23. Examples of Elongated States
Vietnam Chile Norway

24. Shape - Fragmented
Countries composed entirely of islands (Philippines, Indonesia) or separated by another state.
Two Types:
Separated by water (Indonesia)
Separated by an intervening state (India, Russia, United Stated)-exclave
Weakness- centralized control

25. Examples of Fragmented States
Philippines Indonesia
Russia

26. Shape - Perforated State that completely surrounds another one
Example: South Africa
Surrounds Lesotho
Completely dependent on South Africa for imports and exports

27. Examples of Perforated States
South Africa Italy

29. Relative Location
Size and shape are affected by a state’s absolute and relative location
Canada & Russia are large, yet their absolute northern location reduces the agricultural productivity of the land
Iceland has a compact shape but its location near the arctic makes much of its land barren

30. Relative Location
Landlocked countries are at a major developmental disadvantage
Many in Africa due to remnants of colonialism
Must arrange to use another country’s sea port (Lesotho-encapsulated state, otherwise known as an enclave-an enclosed territory that is culturally distinct from the foreign territory that surrounds it)
Coast lines can be a major advantage
-Singapore (224 sq miles) is located at a crossroads of shipping and trade

32. III. The Modern State Idea
The idea of a state that is tied to a particular territory with defined boundaries came out of Europe and diffused outward from there.
A change from society defining territory to territory defining society.
EXAMPLE: FRANCE DEFINES WHERE WE FIND FRENCH PEOPLE
Modern States evolved in the late 1600s.
As our world becomes more globalized, will we even have a need for borders?

33. Rise of the Modern State
1. The European model
The Norman invasion of 1066 produced a whole new political order
On the European continent, the strength of some rulers produced national cohesiveness in more stable domains
Economic revival and so called Dark Ages were over
Treaties signed at the end of the Thirty Years' War and Eighty Years War- contained fundamentals of statehood; inter-state aggression was to be held in check
- Peace of Westphalia
Western Europe’s strong monarchies began to represent something more than authority

34. Rise of the Modern State
Mercantilism a) promotion of commercialism and trade with other states (states competing) b) City-based merchants, not the nobility, gained wealth (producers competing for consumers) c) As money and influence were concentrated in the cities, land as a measure of affluence began to lose its relevance

35. European Colonialism and the Modern State
a physical action in which one state takes over control of another, taking over the government and ruling the territory as its own.
Why?
Organized political states forming
Wealth from mercantilism to expand
Gained more wealth, territory, and power through colonialism
Since Peace of Westphalia restricted inter-state aggression, European powers sought to exert their power on those territories outside of Europe.

36. Diffusion of the Nation-State Model
European Colonization influenced
State model
the European model became the international model
Economic structure
colonies and colonizers became interdependent in a capitalist world economy

37. Two Waves of European Colonialism: 1500 – 1825-Western Hemisphere 1825 – 1975-Africa and South and East Asia

38. Dominant Colonial Influences, 1550-1950
This map shows the dominant influence, as some places were colonized by more than one power in this time period.

39. Berlin Conference of 1884
Otherwise known as “The Scramble for Africa”. This conference formalized the process for staking claims in Africa and mapped out those claims. Attendees included Great Britain, France, Portugal, Germany and Belgium. The conference sparked interest in exploiting African resources and people (colonization). By 1900, 90% of Africa was claimed by European powers.
British, Germans and French-West Africa
Portuguese, Germans and British-East Africa
French and Belgians-Central Africa
British, Germans and Portuguese-Southern Africa
Conference leaders agreed to allow free trade among the colonies. However, the Berlin Conference did not allow say for the peoples/nations of Africa over the portioning of their homeland.

40. What happened to state size?

42. Two Waves of Decolonization
First wave – focused on decolonization of the Americas
Second wave – focused on decolonization of Africa and Asia

43. Construction of the World Economy
Capitalism – people, corporations, and states produce goods and services and exchange them in the world market, with the goal of achieving profit. Commodification – the process of placing a price on a good and then buying, selling, and trading the good (typically associated with culture) Colonialism – brought the world into the world economy, setting up an interdependent global economy.

44. The Capitalist World-Economy
The World-Economy is more than the sum of its parts. It is composed of “dots” (consumers and producers) but we must also understand the “whole.”
Sunday on La Grande Jatte by Georges Pierre Seurat

45. Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory:
The world economy has one market and a global division of labor (everyone has a role in the economy)
Although the world has multiple states, almost everything takes place within the context of the world economy.
The world economy has a three-tier structure.

46. Three Tier Structure Core Periphery Semi-periphery
Processes that incorporate higher levels of education, higher salaries, and more technology
Generate more wealth in the world economy
Examples of Core Countries: Use map on following page
Periphery
Processes that incorporate lower levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology
Generate less wealth in the world economy
Examples of Peripheral Countries: Use map on following page
Semi-periphery
Places where core and periphery processes are both occurring. Places that are exploited by the core but then exploit the periphery.
Serves as a buffer between core and periphery
Examples of Semi-peripheral Countries:
Use map on following page

48. IV. Boundaries and the Problems they Cause
Vertical lines that establish the limit of each state’s jurisdiction and authority
Claims and boundaries are 3 dimensional
Subsoil Resource disputes (1990-Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, led to Gulf War)
Airspace extends into air traffic (no fly zones)
(satellites next?)

51. The Evolution of Boundaries
Definition: the official establishment or documentation of a boundary
Treaty
Legal document
Example: 2000 Macedonia-Serbia and Montenegro delimitation agreement

52. The Evolution of Boundaries
Delimitation: placing of the boundary on a map

53. The Evolution of Boundaries
Demarcation: marking of the boundary by some method on the ground

54. Boundary Types *Boundaries can be a combination of types
I. Natural (physical): based on recognizable physiographic features
Mountains, deserts, rivers, and lakes
Can cause disputes or provide buffer
Mountains-Argentina vs. Chile-divided by crest of Andes Mtns (couldn’t decide on actual crest)
Water-good protection against attack, readily visible on maps
Ex. 1) East Africa-A) DRC/Uganda-Lake Albert, B) Kenya/Tanzania/Uganda-Lake Victoria
2) Rio Grande-U.S./Mexico
3) Georgia/Alabama

55. Boundary Types Law of the Sea-165 countries A. Territorial Zone
12 Nautical miles (14 land mi), allow for innocent passage
(expeditious and continuous in manner)
B. Contiguous Zone
12 Nautical miles, regulate customs, taxation, immigration
C. Exclusive Economic Zone
200 Nautical Miles, rights to resources
Median Line Principle-dividing lines b/t two states with less than
400 nautical miles apart, the EEZ must be drawn between two states.
Also applies to states that are closer (within 24 nautical miles).
Boundaries then split the difference between the two.
Ex. Great Lakes between Canada and the United States
China/Japan/South Korea
Beyond EEZ=International Waters
Disputes can be taken to a tribunal for the Law of the Sea or to
the International Court of Justice or….settled by war!!!

56. Boundary Types
II. Geometric (Artificial): follows parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude
Ex. 1) 49th parallel United States & Canada
2) Quebec’s boundary with NY and VT
3) Alaska’s boundary with Yukon Territory
4) North Africa-Algeria/Libya/Egypt

58. Boundary Types
III. Cultural (Religious, Linguistic, Ethnic): separate groups by a common cultural trait
Religious:
India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)
Ireland (84% Catholic) and Northern Ireland (41% Catholic)
Linguistic:
Boundaries of France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Italy
Ethnic:
Cyprus-Turkish vs. Greek areas

59. Boundary Origins Antecedent: border drawn before it was well populated
United States & Canada

60. Boundary Origins
Subsequent: border drawn after the development of the cultural landscape
2 types:
Consequent
Superimposed

61. Boundary Origins N. Ireland and Ireland
Subsequent Consequent (ethnographic): border drawn to accommodate existing religious, linguistic, or ethnic differences
N. Ireland and Ireland

62. Boundary Origins
Subsequent Superimposed Boundaries: forced on an existing cultural landscape, country, or people by a conquering colonial power
Unconcerned about preexisting cultural patterns
Great Britain = India/Pakistan

63. Boundary Origins
Relict/relic Boundary: former boundary that no longer functions
Differences on each side of the border are still evident
Ex. Berlin Wall

65. Boundary Disputes

66. Definitional/Positional Boundary Disputes
Focus on the legal language of the boundary agreement
Ex. Argentina and Chile-third longest international boundary (3,300 miles)
Dispute over border in Patagonia
Dispute over Beagle Channel

67. Locational Boundary Disputes
The delimitation and possible demarcation of the border is in dispute. How should the border be interpreted?

68. Operational/Functional Disputes
Neighboring states disagree over policies to be applied along a boundary
Ex. Immigration into the U.S. from Mexico

69. Allocation/Resource Disputes
Neighboring states can argue about the distribution of resources
Ex.
Iraq v. Kuwait (oil)
Georgia vs. AL & FL
(Chattahoochee River)
Georgia vs. Tennessee

70. Territorial Disputes
A subsequent boundary divides an ethnically homogenous group
Irredentism- irredentism tries to justify its territorial claims on the basis of (real or imagined) historic or ethnic affiliations. It is often advocated by nationalist movements and has been a feature of political geography.vocating annexation of territories administered by another
Examples of Irrendentism
o 1) Kashmir (India vs. Pakistan and China)
2) Senkaku Islands/ Diaoyu Islands (uninhabited islands controlled by Japan in East China Sea; underwater oil reserves discovered, ownership of islands now disputed by China; Chinese claim of islands supposedly dates back to the 14th century.

72. Capitals Typically are centrally located to allow for equal access
Many capitals have become distant to many areas due to growth: Washington D.C.
Some capitals have been relocated to make them more accessible

73. Capitals
Usually located in the core area and frequently the focus of it
Capital cities are also frequently the largest or the Primate City (usually associated with lesser-developed countries)
Primate City: dominates the economic structure of the entire country

74. Forward-Thrust Capital City
Deliberately sited in a state’s interior
Brazil relocated its capital from Rio de Janeiro to a new city called Brasilia
Nigeria – Abuja
Kazakhstan – Astana

75. Brasilia

76. Brasilia

77. Brasilia

78. Nigeria - Abuja

79. Nigeria - Abuja

80. Kazakhstan – Astana

81. Kazakhstan – Astana (new) Almaty (old)

82. V. Geopolitics power relationships: past, present, and future
Considers the strategic value of land and sea area in the context of national economic and military power and ambitions
power relationships: past, present, and future
Ambitious Historical Movements in Geopolitics
Manifest Destiny-U.S. 1800s-policy of imperialism in the United States. The U.S. would spread from coast to coast. This attitude fueled westward expansion, Native American removal and a war with Mexico.
Monroe Doctrine-1820’s-no more colonies for European states in the Western Hemisphere
“Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”-cultural and economic unity of Asians and Oceanians (Free of Western Powers and Influence)

83. Geopolitics – German School
Ratzel’s Organic Theory (late 1800s)
Ratzel was trained in biology and chemistry and greatly influenced by the theories of Charles Darwin.
Held that a state which is an aggregate of organisms would itself function and behave as an organism
Nourishment of organism provided by acquisition of territories and people; especially if those people are of the same culture
Territory is essential to life.
Nazi expansion policies based on some of Ratzel’s ideas.

84. Geopolitics – British/American School
Sir Halford Mackinder Heartland Theory (1904)
a) Believed a land-based power, not a sea power, would ultimately rule the world
b) Pivot area extended from Eastern Europe to eastern Siberia

86. Mackinder – Heartland Theory
The Heartland is impenetrable
The Heartland is the “geographical pivot”-provided a base for world conquest
Resource rich
Believed that a Russian, Chinese, German alliance was to be feared

87. Mackinder – Heartland Theory
“Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland”
“Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island”
“Who rules the World Island commands the World”

88. Geopolitics Nicholas Spykman - Rimland Theory Critic of Mackinder
Argued that the Eurasian rim, not its heart, held the key to global power

90. Spykman-Rimland Fragmented zone
Divided rimland key to balance of world power
Dense population, abundant resources, controlling access to both the sea and the interior

91. Spykman-Rimland “Who controls the Rimland controls Eurasia”
“Who rules Eurasia controls the destiny of the world”

92. Heartland/Rimland Theories Combined

93. Geopolitical Developments in a Bipolar World
U.S.S.R
Post WWII – Heartland =
U.S. practiced Containment
Confining the U.S.S.R by means of alliances with Rimland
Military intervention
Domino Theory
NATO

94. Saul Cohen, The Cold War and Shatterbelt Theory
Mackinder died in However, his legacy would live on throughout the Cold War era.
Saul Cohen proposed the Shatterbelt Theory-modified Mackinder’s Heartland Theory and called it the “Pivot area” and Spykman’s Rimland Theory and called it the “Inner Crescent”. He identified the rest of the world as the “Outer Crescent.”
Cohen proposed that most of the conflict in the world would be found in the Inner Crescent. These areas of potential conflict, political instability or geopolitical weakness would then become known as shatterbelts (Middle East and Africa). Cohen accurately identified many areas of the world that would experience conflict from (during the Cold War era)
Some conflict areas that powerful states would attempt to capture would be used as “buffer states”-lands that would create a buffer of sympathetic countries.

95. Shatterbelt Theory

96. Geopolitics Today
Thoughts were that world events have rendered older geopolitical ideas obsolete. Or, are they? What about Vladimir Putin and his invasion of Georgia and Ukraine (claiming Crimean Peninsula)?
End of the Cold War (at least in the eyes of the U.S.), Nuclear Technology limited (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons)
Japan, China, Western Europe becoming world powers through economic means
No more Unilateralism – Is U.S. dominance over? “Have we gone soft?”, trying to seek involvement of other states in world affairs?

97. U.S. Foreign Policy Strategies/Principles
Isolationism-state tends to domestic affairs only
Realism-take active role in international affairs; high profile procurement/proliferation
Neo-isolationism-keep foreign involvement to a minimum (only when necessary)
Idealism-foreign involvement for good of all countries

98. VI. How do States Spatially Organize their Governments?

99. Internal Structure
1. The needs of a well-functioning state a) Clearly bounded territory served by an adequate infrastructure b) Effective administrative framework, a productive core area, and a prominent capital 2. All states confront divisive forces

100. Forms of Government
These two forms promote nation-building and attempt to quell division within…
Unitary – highly centralized government where the capital city serves as a focus of power.
Examples-monarchies, autocracies, theocracies, parliamentary, communist, dictatorships
Unitary governments can still be democratic as well.
Federal – a government where the state is organized into territories (sub-states), which have control over some government policies and funds.
Examples-democracies or any country with sub-states (ie. U.S., Canada, Mexico, Germany, Argentina)

101. Unitary and Federal Systems
1.Early European nation-states were unitary states: a)Governments were highly centralized and powerful b)Capital cities represented authority that stretched to the limits of the state

102. Unitary and Federal Systems
The federal state arose in the New World
a) Newness of the culture, and emergence of regionalism due to the vast size of territories
b) Conditions did not lend themselves to unitary systems of government
c) Absence of an old primate city, lack of core area

103. Nigeria’s Federal Government –
Allows states within the state to determine
whether to have Shari’a Laws
Shari’a Law-
Legal systems based on traditional Islamic laws
Issues with Shari’a Law now found in Europe with Muslim immigrants (France)

104. The U.S. Federal Government –
Allows states (sub-states) within the state to determine “moral” laws such as death penalty, access to alcohol, concealed weapons and now drug use?
Minnesota’s concealed weapons law
requires the posting of signs such as this buildings that do not allow concealed weapons.
Legalization of Marijuana in Colorado in 2012, despite marijuana use and distribution being a Schedule 1 drug under CSA.

105. Big vs. Small and Government Systems
Usually bigger states (ie. U.S., Canada, Mexico, Germany) have federal systems
Usually smaller states (ie. Cuba, Djibouti, Israel, Peru) have unitary systems

106. Forces of Fragmentation and Cohesion: Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

107. Centripetal Forces Promoting State Cohesion Nationalism
Unifying Institutions
Organization and Administration
Transportation and Communication
Supranationalism

108. Centrifugal Forces Challenges to State Authority Less Nationalism
Devolution, Regionalism
Peripheral Location
Social and Economic Inequality

109. Devolution –
Movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state.
What causes devolutionary movements?
Ex.
Ethnocultural forces
Economic forces
Spatial forces

111. Ethnocultural Devolutionary Movements
Eastern Europe
devolutionary forces since the fall of communism
Ex. Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia

112. Economic Devolutionary Movements
Catalonia, Spain
Barcelona, located in Catalonia, is the center of banking and commerce in Spain and the region is much wealthier than the rest of Spain. It produces 25% of Spanish exports and 40% of its industrial exports.

113. Spatial Devolutionary Movements
Honolulu, Hawai’i
A history apart from the United States, and a desire to live apart in order to keep traditions alive.

114. Supranational Organizations
A separate entity composed of three or more states that forge an association and form an administrative structure for mutual benefit in pursuit of shared goals. * How many supranational organizations exist in the world today?
At least 60

115. United Nations Cooperate with internationally approved standards
Background: League of Nations – 1919, idea of Woodrow Wilson but, due to isolationist Americans, U.S. never joined. League collapsed prior to WWII (Italian invasion of Ethiopia). Prior to WWII, states created the Permanent Court of International Justice. After WWII, states formed the United Nations…
Basics of the UN:
Cooperate with internationally approved standards
193 members
Aid: refugees, poverty, troops in peacekeeping operations, human rights

116. Global Scale – The United Nations

117. NATO
ALBANIA (2009)
LITHUANIA (2004)
BELGIUM (1949)
LUXEMBOURG (1949)
BULGARIA (2004)
NETHERLANDS (1949)
CANADA (1949)
NORWAY (1949)
CROATIA (2009)
POLAND (1999)
CZECH REPUBLIC (1999)
PORTUGAL (1949)
DENMARK (1949)
ROMANIA (2004)
ESTONIA (2004)
SLOVAKIA (2004)
FRANCE (1949)
SLOVENIA (2004)
GERMANY (1955)
SPAIN (1982)
GREECE (1952)
TURKEY (1952)
HUNGARY (1999)
THE UNITED KINGDOM (1949)
ICELAND (1949)
THE UNITED STATES (1949)
ITALY (1949)
LATVIA (2004)
28 members who exist as one organization for the purpose of safeguarding freedom and security of its members through political and military means
Political-promote democratic values and cooperation in order to prevent conflict
Military-peaceful resolution of disputes
If unable to resolve peacefully, a crisis-management operation is undertaken according to Article 5 of Washington Treaty (NATO foundation) htm

118. Regional Scale - Europe
Benelux, 1944: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg
Marshall Plan, 1948-’52: US aid to Western European Countries
Organization of European Economic Cooperation, 1952 (OEEC) to
European Economic Community (EEC)
European Community (EC)
European Union, 1992 (EU)

119. Regional Scale - Europe
European Union: domestic, military, and certain sovereign policies that govern all members
12 European Community (EC) members established the EU – 1992
Euro introduced in 2002
Problems facing the EU?
Bailouts to member countries
Subsidies
Germany bailouts
What to do with Turkey? Russia?
United Kingdom has left the organization-”Brexit”
Who’s next to leave? GREECE POSSIBLY
Original Members: Germany, France, UK, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, Denmark and Ireland

120. Regional Scale – The European Union (27 Current Members, Newest-Croatia)

121. Supranationalism Elsewhere…
NAFTA, ASEAN…
-Treaties to reduce tariffs and facilitate trade
***None like the European Union