1. RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills
Week 10
Observation Studies, Experiments, Surveys, Measurement and measurement scale

2. Observations
We call a set of data derived from an object (experimental unit) an observation. Each object is measured according to various aspects, such as temperature, concentration of some constituents, frequency of occurrence of some phenomenon, etc. Each of these aspects is denoted as a variable or feature. By assembling all available data on all objects we can build a matrix - a table where the columns represent the variables and the rows represent the measured observations.

3. The Uses of Observation
Observation and the Research Process

4. The Uses of Observation
Selecting Data Collection Method

5. Non-Behavioral Observation
Record Analysis
Physical Condition Analysis
Physical Process Analysis

6. Behavioral Observation
Nonverbal Analysis
Linguistic Analysis
Extra-linguistic Analysis
Spatial Analysis

7. Classification of Observation
We can classify observation in terms of the observer participant relationship. This relationship may be viewed from three perspectives:
(1) Is the observation direct or indirect?
(2) Is the observer’s presence known or unknown?
(3) Is the observer a participant or nonparticipant?

8. Limitation of Observation
Observation may be limited by:
The difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the
relevant phenomena.
The expense of observer costs and equipment.
The reliability of inferences from surface indicators.
The problems of quantification and disproportionately
large records.
The limitation on presenting activities and inferences
about cognitive processes.

9. Experiments
Experiments are studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in a setting and observe how it affects the subjects being studied (e.g., people or physical entities). The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.

10. Evaluation of Experiments
Advantages
Disadvantages

11. Conducting of Experiments
Select relevant variables.
Specify the treatment levels.
Control the experimental environment.
Choose the experimental design.
Select and assign the subjects.
Pilot test, revise, and test.
Analyze the data.

12. Validity in Experiments
Internal Validity
Among the many threats to internal validity, we consider the following seven:
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Selection
Statistical regression
Experimental mortality

13. Validity in Experiments
External Validity
Reactivity of testing on X .
Interaction of selection and X .
Other reactive factors.

14. Experimental Research Designs
Preexperimental Designs
True Experimental Designs
Field Experiments: Quasi- or Semi-Experiments

15. Surveys
A survey is an investigation about the characteristics of a given population by means of collecting data from a sample of that population and estimating their characteristics through the systematic use of statistical methodology. The communication approach involves surveying or interviewing people and recording their responses for analysis

16. Some attitudes are expected.
“There once was a demographic survey done
to determine if money was connected to
happiness, and Ireland was the only place
where this did not turn out to be true.”
Fiona Shaw
Irish actress and theater director

17. Communication Approachd
Strengths
Versatility
Efficiency
Geographic coverage
Weaknesses
Error
Inaccessible populations

18. Communication Approaches
Self-
Administered
Survey
Telephone
Survey
Survey via
Personal
Interview

19. Self-Administered Surveys
Disk-by-Mail
Intercept
Modes
Drop-off
Mail
CASI
Fax
10-19

20. Designing Questionnaires Using the TDM
Easy to read
Offer clear directions
Include personalization
Notify in advance
Encourage response

21. Telephone Survey
Traditional
CATI systems
Computer-
administered

22. Designing Questionnaires Using the TDM
Lower Cost vs. Personal Interview
Wide geographic coverage
Fewer Interviewers
Reduced interviewer bias
Fast completion time
Random dialing
CATI

23. Measurement Select measurable phenomena Develop a set of mapping rules
Apply the mapping rule
to each phenomenon

24. Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Classification
interval
Ratio

25. Levels of Measurement Nominal Classification Ordinal Classification
Order
interval
Classification
Distance
Order
Ratio
Classification
Distance
Order
Natural Origin

26. References Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper, 12th Edition.
Chapter 8 - Observation Studies, PP
Chapter 9 - Experiments, PP
Chapter 10 - Surveys Studies, PP
Chapter 11 - Measurement, PP
Chapter 12 - Measurement Scale, PP