1. Identifying Different Types of Research
(Paradigms) Intended Use, Treatment of Time & Units of Measurement

2. Ways of using literature reviews to develop ideas for topics
Literature review = Survey of research done on your topic replicate a project (exactly or with variations)
previous research may inspire you (Baxter & Babbie, p. 20), for example :
explore unexpected findings
follow suggestions for further research
extend explanation or theory to new topic or setting or context
challenge findings-- try to refute conclusions
look for new variables, relationships not treated in literature

3. Note incomplete literature coverage : “Lost Science in the Third World”---
Scientific American (1995) Vol 277, No. 7.

4. Recall: Research Paradigms
Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community about what constitutes worthwhile research (Thomas Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions)
What problems are worth investigating?
What constitutes an answer?
Different views on how approaches are grouped

5. Developing research topics

6. Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs
Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches (common about yrs ago but still used) Neuman (2000: 16)
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Objective
Subjective
Variables
Processes and events
Reliability
Authenticity
Value-Free
Explicitly Stated Values
Independent of Context
Aware of Context
Many cases or subjects
Few cases or subjects
Statistical Analysis
Other qualities
Detached Researcher
Involved Researcher

7. Another idea: Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan)
Conflict/radical change
radical humanist radical structuralist
interpretive functionalist
subjective
objective
Order/stability/regulation

8. “Dimensions” of Research
Purpose of
Study
Intended Use of Study
Treatment of Time in Study
Data Collection Technique (examples of common types associated with approaches)
Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory
Basic
Applied
-Action
-Impact
-Need Assessment
Evaluation
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
-Panel
-Time series
-Cohort
-Case Study
-Trend study
Quantitative
(survey, content analysis, existing statistics, experiment)
Qualitative
(field research, historical comparative, etc.)
Neuman (2000: 37)

9. Exploratory Research When not much is known about topic
Surprises (e.g. Serendipity effect)
Familiarity with basic concerns and develop a picture
To explore feasibility of additional research
To develop questions

10. Descriptive Research Focuses on “who”, “what” and “how”
Background information, to stimulate new ways of thinking, to classify types, etc.

11. Explanatory Research To test theories, predictions, etc…
Idea of “advancing” knowledge

12. Intended Uses of Study Basic or fundamental research
Depends on paradigm
Inner logic & relation to theoretical or methodological issues in field
Concerns scholarly community
Applied research (practical applications)
action research (We can make a difference)
evaluation research (Did it work?)
Methods:
formative (built in)
summative (final outcomes)
Research goals
needs assessment (Who needs what?)
cost-benefit analysis (What is it worth?)
social impact assessment (What will be the effects?)

13. Treatment of Time Cross-sectional (one point in time) Longitudinal
(more than one point in time)

14. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies
Panel study
Example: same people, at least twice
80+
Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

15. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)
Cohort analysis
same category of people (but not exactly same individuals) at at least two times or over a period
Not necessarily age cohorts, can be groups of people, (ex. class of 2007)
Term usually used for people but principles can also apply to non-humans: ex. implementation of homeland security policies 9/11 2 years and 5 years after, etc…
Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

16. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)
Time-series
same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same age groups
Back to table
To next slide
Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

17. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)
Time-series (other examples)
same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same place
Capital Hill residents Capital Hill residents

18. Main Types of Cross-sectional Studies (cont’d)
One point in time (but techniques exist to convert cross-sectional data for use in longitudinal studies) 20
Duration (in years) 15 10 5
1970 75 80 85 90
Year (Date)
Source: (May 15, 2000)

19. Case Studies
Both cross-sectional and longitudinal types, but often over duration of time

20. Units of Analysis (Individual)

21. Units of Analysis (Families)

22. Units of analysis: ( Households)

23. Artifacts as “Units” of Analysis
Non-human elements (like technologies) as subjects (Actor-Network Theory) in communication studies
Communications media (radio, television, mobile phones etc…)
Media Messages & Uses

24. Importance of Choosing Appropriate Unit of Analysis
example: Ecological Fallacy (cheating)

25. Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

26. Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

27. Ecological Fallacy & Reductionism
ecological fallacy--wrong unit of analysis
(too high)
reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)
reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)