1. Financial Econometrics Fin. 505
Chapter 10:
HETEROSCEDASTICITY: WHAT HAPPENS IF THE ERROR VARIANCE IS NONCONSTANT?

2. I. The Natural of Homoscedasticity
One of the important assumptions of the classical linear regression model is that the variance of each disturbance term ui, conditional on the chosen values of the explanatory variables, is some constant number equal to σ2.
This is the assumption of homoscedasticity, or equal (homo) spread (scedasticity), that is, equal variance.

3. However the assumption of homoscedasticity may not always hold.
When it does not happen, you have heteroscedasticity.

4. Example:
Assume that in the two-variable model- Y represents savings and X represents income:
Yi = β1 + β2Xi + ui
Figures 11.1 and 11.2 show that as income increases, savings on the average also increase.
But in Figure 11.1 the variance of savings remains the same at all levels of income, whereas in Figure 11.2 it increases with income.
It seems that in Figure 11.2 the higher income families on the average save more than the lower-income families, but there is also more variability in their savings.

7. II. Consequences of Heteroscedasticity
Heteroscedasticity violates one of the CLRM assumptions. When an assumption of the CLRM is violated, the OLS estimators may no longer be BLUE.
Specifically, in the presence of heteroscedasticity, the OLS estimators may not be efficient (achieve the smallest variance).
Also accordingly, the estimated standard errors of the coefficients will be biased, which results in unreliable hypothesis tests (t-statistics). The OLS estimates, however, remain unbiased.

8. III. Detecting Heteroscedasticity

10. 1) Examining the residuals in graph form:
Although uˆ2i are not the same thing as u2i , they can be used as proxies especially if the sample size is sufficiently large.
An examination of the uˆ2i may reveal patterns such as those shown in next Figure 11.9.
You may plot uˆ2i against one of the explanatory variables Xi.

12. According to Figure 11.9 :
A pattern such as that shown in Figure 11.9c, for instance, suggests that the variance of the disturbance term is linearly related to the X variable.
Thus, if in the regression of savings on income one finds a pattern such as that shown in Figure 11.9c, it suggests that the heteroscedastic variance may be proportional to the value of the income variable.
This knowledge may help us in transforming our data in such a manner that in the regression on the transformed data the variance of the disturbance is homoscedastic.

13. 2) Breusch-Pagan test :
This test is the most common test for heteroscedasticity.
It begins by allowing the heteroscedasticity process to be a function of one or more of your independent variables.
It is usually applied by assuming that heteroscedasticity may be a linear function of all independent variables in the model.

14. To illustrate this test with the k-variable linear regression model:
Yi = β1 + β2X2i + ·· ·+βkXki + ui
Assume that the error variance σ2i is described as
σ2i = f (α1 + α2X2i + ·· ·+αKXki)
Specifically, assume that:
σ2i = α1 + α2X2i +· · ·+ αKXki
That is, σ2i is a linear function of the X’s.
If α2 = α3 = · · · = αk = 0, σ2i = α1, which is a constant.

16. Step (1):
Estimate Yi = β1 + β2X2i + ·· ·+βkXki + ui
by OLS and obtain the residuals uˆ1, uˆ2, . . , uˆn.
Step (2):
Obtain error variance σ˜2 = Σuˆ2i /n.
Step (3):
Construct variables pi defined as pi = uˆ2i / σ˜2
which is simply each residual squared divided by σ˜2.

17. Step (4):
Regress pi on the X’s as
pi = α1 + α2X2i +· · ·+αkXki + vi
where vi is the residual term of this regression.
Step (5):
Obtain the ESS (explained sum of squares) from the previous equation and define
Θ =(1/2) (ESS)
Assuming ui are normally distributed, one can show that if there is homoscedasticity and if the sample size n increases indefinitely, then Θ∼asy χ2k−1

18. that follows the chi-square distribution with (k− 1) degrees of freedom.
Therefore, if the computed Θ (= χ2) exceeds the critical χ2 value at the chosen level of significance, one can reject the hypothesis of homoscedasticity; otherwise one does not reject it.

19. Example of Breusch–Pagan test:
Regressing Y on X, we obtain the following:
Step (1):
Yˆi = Xi
se = (5.2314) (0.0286)
RSS = R2 = n = 30
Step (2):
calculate σ˜2 =Σuˆ2i /30 = /30 =
Step (3):
Divide the squared residuals uˆ2i obtained from regression (step 1) by to construct the variable pi.

20. Step (4):
Assuming that pi are linearly related to Xi , we obtain the regression
pˆi = − Xi
se = (0.7529) (0.0041)
ESS = R2 = 0.18
Step (5):
Θ = (½) (ESS) =

21. Under the assumptions of the BPG test in asymptotically follows the chisquare distribution with 1 df.
Now from the chi-square table we find that for 1 df the 5 percent critical, chi-square value is and the 1 percent critical, χ2 value is
Thus, the observed chi-square value of is significant at the 5 percent but not the 1 percent level of significance.

22. Important Remarks:
Keep in mind that, strictly speaking, the BPG test is an asymptotic, or large-sample test and in the present example 30 observations may not constitute a large sample.
It should also be pointed out that in small samples the test is sensitive to the assumption that the disturbances ui are normally distributed.
A weakness of BP test is that it assumes the hereroskedasticity is a linear function of the independent variables.

23. Failing to find evidence of hereroskedasticity with the BP test doesn’t rule out a nonlinear relationship between the independent variable(s) and the error variance.
Additionally, the BP test isn’t useful for determining how to correct or adjust the model for hereroskedasticity.

24. As we have seen, heteroscedasticity does not destroy the unbiasedness and consistency properties of the OLS estimators, but they are no longer efficient, not even asymptotically (i.e., large sample size).