1. Gastrointestinal Physiology
Enas Sabah
MSc. Human Physiology

2. General Principles of Gastrointestinal Function
The alimentary tract provides the body with a continual supply of water, electrolytes, vitamins, and nutrients.
achieving this requires :
movement of food through the GIT
secretion of digestive juices and digestion of the food
absorption of water, various electrolytes, vitamins, and digestive products
circulation of blood through the GI organs to carry away the absorbed substances
control of all these functions by local, nervous, and hormonal systems.

4. Physiologic Anatomy of the GI Wall
Submucosal plexus

5. Electrical Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle
Slow Waves
They are slow, undulating changes in the resting membrane potential. Their intensity usually varies between 5 and 15 millivolts

6. Spike Potentials:
They are true action potentials.
occur automatically when the resting membrane potential of the GI smooth muscle becomes more positive than about −40 millivolts.
The normal resting membrane potential in the smooth muscle fibers of the gut is between −50 and −60 millivolts).

8. Factors that depolarize the membrane”make it more excitable”:
stretching of the muscle
stimulation by acetylcholine
stimulation by several GI hormones.
Factors that make the membrane potential more negative ”hyperpolarize the membrane” make the muscle fibers less excitable:
the effect of NE or EP on the fiber membrane
stimulation of the sympathetic nerves that secrete mainly NE at their endings.

9. The slow waves do not cause calcium ions to enter the smooth muscle fiber (only sodium ions). Therefore, the slow waves by themselves usually cause no muscle contraction.
Instead, it is during the spike potentials, generated at the peaks of the slow waves, that significant quantities of calcium ions do enter the fibers and cause most of the contraction.

10. Neural Control of Gastrointestinal Function—Enteric Nervous System
The GI has its own nervous system called the enteric nervous system.
It lies entirely in the wall of the gut, beginning in the esophagus and extending all the way to the anus.
It's composed of 2 plexuses:
myenteric plexus an outer plexus lying between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers.
submucosal plexus an inner plexus, that lies in the submucosa.

12. The myenteric plexus controls mainly the GI movements
submucosal plexus controls mainly GI secretion and local blood flow.
Although the ENS can function independently, stimulation by the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems can greatly enhance or inhibit GI functions.

13. The myenteric plexus is not entirely excitatory because some of its neurons are inhibitory their fiber endings secrete an inhibitory transmitter, like vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) or other inhibitory peptide.
The resulting inhibitory signals are useful for inhibiting some of the intestinal sphincter muscles that impede movement of food along segments of the GI tract, such as the pyloric sphincter, which controls emptying of the stomach into the duodenum.

14. The submucosal plexus, is mainly concerned with controlling function within the inner wall
many sensory signals originate from the GI epithelium and are then integrated in the submucosal plexus to help control local intestinal secretion, local absorption.

15. Autonomic Control of the Gastrointestinal Tract
The parasympathetic supply to the gut is divided into cranial and sacral divisions.
The cranial parasympathetics provide extensive innervation to the esophagus, stomach, and pancreas and somewhat less to the intestines down through the first half of the large intestine.
The sacral parasympathetics originate in the 2nd , 3rd , and 4th sacral segments of the spinal cord and pass through the pelvic nerves to the distal half of the large intestine and all the way to the anus.

17. Stimulation of parasympathetic nerves causes general increase in activity of the entire ENS. This in turn enhances activity of most GI functions.

18. The sympathetic fibers to the GIT originate in the spinal cord between segments T5 and L2.
The sympathetics innervate essentially all of the GIT, rather than being more extensive nearest the oral cavity and anus, as the parasympathetics.
The sympathetic nerve endings secrete mainly NE & small amounts of EP.
stimulation of the sympathetic NS inhibits activity of the GIT, causing effects opposite to those of the parasympathetic system.
Strong stimulation of the sympathetic system can inhibit motor movements of the gut so greatly that this can block movement of food through the GIT.

19. Afferent Sensory Nerve Fibers from the Gut
Many afferent sensory nerve fibers innervate the gut.
Some of them have their cell bodies in the ENS itself and some in the spinal cord.
These sensory nerves can be stimulated by
(1) irritation of the gut mucosa.
(2) excessive distention of the gut.
(3) presence of specific chemical substances in the gut.

20. Hormonal Control of Gastrointestinal Motility

21. Propulsion and Mixing of Food in the Alimentary Tract
Mastication (Chewing)
The teeth are designed for chewing. The anterior teeth (incisors) provide a strong cutting action and the posterior teeth (molars) a grinding action.
Most of the muscles of chewing are innervated by the motor branch of the 5th cranial nerve (trigeminal), and the chewing process is controlled by nuclei in the brain stem.

22. Swallowing (Deglutition)
swallowing can be divided into
a voluntary stage, which initiates the swallowing process (food is squeezed into the pharynx by pressure of the tongue upward and backward).
pharyngeal stage, which is involuntary and constitutes passage of food through the pharynx into the esophagus.
esophageal stage, also involuntary phase that transports food from the pharynx to the stomach.

23. Function of the stomach
1. motor function
2. secretory function

24. Motor Functions of the Stomach
1. storage of large quantities of food until the food can be processed. Gastric distention cause relaxation of the stomach to ↑capacity to L. 2. mixing of this food with gastric secretions until it forms a semifluid mixture called chyme 3.slow emptying of the chyme into the small intestine at a rate suitable for proper digestion and absorption by the small intestine.

26. Stomach or gastric Emptying
promoted by intense peristaltic contractions in the stomach antrum.
Most of the time, the rhythmical stomach contractions are weak and function mainly for mixing of food and gastric secretions.
Then the contractions become intense, beginning in midstomach and spreading through the distal part of the stomach; these contractions are strong peristaltic,very tight ringlike constrictions that can cause stomach emptying.

27. Regulation of Stomach Emptying
Gastric Factors that Promote Emptying:
Increased food volume in the stomach
Gastrin hormon has mild to moderate stimulatory effects on motor functions in the body of the stomach.

28. Powerful Factors That Inhibit Stomach Emptying (Duodenal factors)
When food enters the duodenum, multiple nervous reflexes are initiated that strongly inhibit the “pyloric pump” propulsive contractions, and ↑ tone of the pyloric sphincter.
The factors that can initiate enterogastric inhibitory reflexes include the following:
1. The degree of distention of the duodenum
2. The presence of any degree of irritation of the duodenal mucosa

29. 3. The degree of acidity of the chyme
4. The degree of osmolality of the chyme
5. The presence of certain breakdown products in the chyme, especially breakdown products of proteins and to a lesser extent, of fats

30. Movements of the Small Intestine
The movements of the small intestine can be divided into
mixing (segmentation) contractions
Propulsive (peristaltic) contractions

31. Mixing Contractions (Segmentation Contractions)
When the small intestinal wall becomes distended (stretched) with chyme, this elicits localized concentric contractions along the intestine and lasting a fraction of a minute.
The contractions cause “segmentation” of the small intestine.
As one set of segmentation contractions relaxes, a new set often begins, but the contractions this time occur at new points between the previous contractions.

33. Propulsive Movements
Chyme is propelled through the small intestine by peristaltic waves produced by the gastroenteric reflex described below.
Stetching of the inestinal wall
stimulation of the ENS
Contraction of the gut wall behind the bolus and relaxation in front of it

34. Control of Peristalsis by Nervous and Hormonal Signals.
Peristaltic activity is greatly increased after a meal (gastroenteric reflex)
Hormonal
Hormons that enhance intestinal motility
Gastrin
CCK
insulin
motilin
Serotonin
Hormons that inhibit intestinal motility
Secretin
glucagon

35. Movements of the Colon
similar to those of the small intestine movements of colon can be divided into mixing movements and propulsive movements.
The principal functions of the colon are
(1) absorption of water and electrolytes from the chyme to form solid feces.
(2) storage of fecal matter until it can be expelled.

36. Defecation Reflexes There are 2 types of defecation reflexes
The intrinsic reflex mediated by the local enteric nervous system in the rectal wall.
distention of the rectal wall
initiates afferent signals through the myenteric plexus
Initiate peristaltic waves in the descending colon, sigmoid, and rectum, forcing feces toward the anus.
internal anal sphincter is relaxed by inhibitory signals from the myenteric plexus
external anal sphincter is also consciously, voluntarily
relaxed at the same time
defecation occurs

37. 2. The parasympathetic reflex that involve the sacral segments of the spinal cord Nerve endings in the rectum are stimulated Signals are transmitted into the spinal cord Then reflexly back to to descending colon, sigmoid & rectum (by pelvic parasympathetic Nerve fibers) Intensify the peristaltic waves &relax internal anal sphincter external anal sphincter is also consciously, voluntarily relaxed defecation occurs

39. Secretory Functions of the GIT
Secretory glands have two primary functions:
secrete digestive enzymes are secreted in most areas of the GIT
provide mucus for lubrication and protection of all parts of GIT.

40. Basic Mechanisms of Stimulation of the GIT Glands
contact of Food with the Epithelium Stimulates Secretion(direct contact stimulation of the surface glandular cells by the food).
Parasympathetic Stimulation GIT Glandular Secretion Rate.
Sympathetic Stimulation Has a Dual Effect (sympathetic stim. alone secretion
parasympathetic stim. the secretion

41. Esophageal secretions
They are entirely mucous and provide lubrication for swallowing.
The main body of the esophagus is lined with many simple mucous glands.

42. When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in large folds, or rugae = wrinkles)

43. Anatomical Types of Glands
(oxyntic)
(Peptic)

44. Gastric Secretion The surface of the stomach lined with
mucus-secreting cells
oxyntic glands
pyloric glands

45. oxyntic glands It is composed of three types of cells:
mucous neck cells, secrete mucus.
peptic (chief) cells, secrete of pepsinogen.
parietal (oxyntic) cells, secrete HCL & intrinsic factor(essential for Vit. B12 absorption).

46. Pyloric glands Its also composed of three types of cells:
few peptic (chief) cells secrete pepsinogen
mucous cells secrete mucus
G cells secrete gastrin

47. pepsinogen has no digestive activity
pepsinogen has no digestive activity. However, when it comes in contact with HCL, it is activated to form active pepsin.
Pepsin functions as an active proteolytic enzyme.
HCL is as necessary as pepsin for protein digestion in the stomach.

48. Reference: Gyton and Hall text book of medical physiology.