1. Interviews & focus groups
Research Methodology

2. The research interview
A purposeful conversation between 2 or more people.
It requires the interviewer to:
Establish rapport
Ask concise and unambiguous questions
Listen carefully.
Intrviews’ place in the research design: to explore; to formulate hypotheses; to collect data to explain; to illustrate the results; to find furher research questions

3. Approaches to the interview
The objective approach: interviewees are ’witnesses’ to an independent reality, not as social actors (their culture and views are nit taken into consideration). It collects factual(ly treated) data.
The subjective approach: the interviewees’ views are socially constructed, so are the gathered data. The interview is treated as an interaction between the interviewee and the interviewer. The central role of the interviewer in constructing the meaning is recognized.

4. Interview types
It should be consistent with the research question(s)/objective(s) and the research strategy.
There are parallel typologies.

5. Typology 1
Saunders et al. (2016 )

6. Typology 2 Structured Semi-structured Unstructured (in-depth)
Semi-structured and unstructured interviews are qualitative research interviews.

7. Structured interviews
Based on questionnaires: identical, standardized questions.
The questions are read out and the responses are recorded (usually with pre-coded answers) by the interviewer.
Minimalize the social interaction during the interview to decrease bias: asking exactly as written, with the same tone.
Quantifiable data are preferred.

8. Semi-structured interviews
The researcher has a list of themes and questions, but their use and their order may vary from interview to interview. It is also possible to add questions to the list during the interview.
An interview schedule is useful (with opening questions, hints etc.).
Audio-recording and/or note taking is necessary.

9. Unstructured (in-depth) interview
Ther is no predetermined list of questions, only a clear idea about the aspects to explore.
The interviewee is allowed to talk freely in relation about the topic (about events, feelings, beliefs etc.). It is non-directive.
Subcategories:
Informant interview: guided by the interviewee
Respondent interview: a greater role of the interviewer

10. Research purposes and interview types
Saunders et al. (2016 )

11. When to use qualitative interviews?
Research purpose
The importance of personal contact and building trust:
Managers like to be interviewed relative to other methods.
It provides insight and control to the interviewee
It is an opportunity to speak
It is a positive feedback
It is less tiring
The nature of data collection questions:
Large number of questions
Complex and open ended questions
The order of the questions may need to be varied
Length of time required and completeness of the process
Natural data: everyday authentic situation is necessary
Contrived data: the situation is constructed

12. Checklist
Saunders et al. (2016 )

13. Data quality
Biases: interviewer bias, response bias, participation bias
Cultural differences betwen the interviewer and the interviewee. Even interviewing itself has assumptions: it is OK to discuss the topic with a stranger etc.
Generalizability/transferability

14. Preparing a qualitative interview
Your level of knowledge
Developing themes, supplying information to the interviewee
Appropriateness of the interview location
Appropriateness of your appearance
Opening an interview

15. Approach to questioning
Aim: reducing the scope for bias and increasing reliability.
Clear phrasing
Neutral tone
Open questions help to avoid/reduce bias
Probing questions can increase completeness
Try to ground responses in the real-life experiences (critical incident technique)
Avoid:
long and double-barrel questions
too many concepts and jargon
Sensitive questions to the end

16. Question types Open questions
Probing questions: to explore further. Prefacing („That is interesting…”) can be useful.
Specific and closed questions
Interpretation and extension questions

17. Questions to avoid
Leading
Proposing

18. Other means to further your questioning
Follow-up expressions
Short follow-up statements
Short follow-up questions
Rephrasing what you have just been told
Inviting silence
Combination of devices
Summarizing to test understanding

19. Other considerations Impact of the interviewer’s behavior
Attentive listening skills
Dealing with difficult participants
Data recording
Contextual data: location, date and time, setting, background information (participant, organization, event etc.)
Immediate impressions

20. Group interview
A general term for semi-structured and in-depth interviews conducted with 2 or more interviewees.
Group size: 2-12 participants (usually) based on the topic and the skills of the interviewer.
Participants are chosen by judgement (non-randomly) to meet the objectives (to maximize the information).
Every participant’s contribution should be maximized (arrangement, encouragement).
The flow of discussion must be managed verbally and also nonverbally.
Location and setting is important.

21. Focus groups
Group interviews where the topic is defined clearly and precisely and there is a focus on enabling and recording interactive discussion between participants.
Interviewer = moderator.
Advantages: creativity, social (real life) situation, illustrative quotes, children
Disadvantage: absolutely no chance to generalize, hard to find a good moderator.