1. The Processes of Memory
Memory is the input, storage, and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.
Three steps:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
The Processes of Memory
Section 1

2. Three Stages of Memory The three types of memory: Sensory memory
prevents you from being overwhelmed
gives you some decision time
allows for continuity and stability in your world
Stages of Memory
Section 1

3. Three Stages of Memory (cont.)
Short-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal
Chunking
Long-term memory
Using Short-Term Memory
Spot the Real Penny
Section 1

4. Three Stages of Memory (cont.)
Four types of long-term memory:
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Declarative memory
Procedural memory
Three Systems of Memory
Section 1

5. Memory and the Brain
Two theories regarding the physiological changes that occur when we learn something:
A change in the neuronal structure of nerves occurs.
Learning is based on molecular or chemical changes in the brain.
Section 1

6. Recall
Recall involves a person’s knowledge, attitudes, and expectations.
Recall is influenced by reconstructive processes.
Adding addition information not in memory is called confabulation.
Section 2

7. Recall (cont.) Our memories may be reconstructed in terms of schemas
Eidetic memory
State-dependent learning occurs when you recall information easily when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting you were when you originally encoded the information.
Elizabeth Loftus
Section 2

8. Relearning
Relearning is a measure of both declarative and procedural memory.
Section 2

9. Forgetting
When information that once entered long-term memory is unable to be retrieved, it is said to be forgotten.
Forgetting may involve:
Decay
Interference
Repression
Section 2

10. Forgetting (cont.)
Amnesia—a loss of memory that may occur after a blow to the head, brain damage, drug use, or severe psychological stress.
Infant amnesia—the relative lack of early declarative memories.
Section 2

11. Forgetting (cont.) Theories for why we do not remember being young:
Freud thought that memories are repressed because of the emotional traumas of infancy.
Others believe that because infants do not yet understand language, their memories are nonverbal, whereas later memories are verbal.
Section 2

12. Forgetting (cont.)
Others claim that the hippocampus may not be mature enough in infancy to spark memories.
Or that infants have not yet developed a sense of self to experience memories.
Section 2

13. Improving Memory
Techniques for improving memory are based on efficient organization of the things you learn and on chunking information into easily handled packages.
Elaborative rehearsal
Section 2

14. Improving Memory (cont.)
Ways to protect a memory from interference:
Overlearn it.
Avoid studying similar material together.
Use distributed practice, or study a little at a time.
Section 2

15. Improving Memory (cont.)
Mnemonic devices
Examples:
The Method of Loci
“Thirty days has September”
“Every Good Boy Does Fine”
Mental pictures
Section 2

16. Stages of Memory
Psychologists often compare human memory to a computer; however, unlike a computer, people can never fill their long-term memories so full that there is no room left for storage.
Figure 1

17. Spot the Real Penny
Which is the genuine penny among the fakes? Even though you live in the United States and probably see hundreds of pennies a week, it is difficult to identify the real one. Mere reception, such as seeing something over and over again, does not guarantee a strong memory.
Figure 2

18. Using Short-Term Memory
Glance quickly at the left figure in this pair, then look away. How many dots did you see? Now do the same with the right figure. You were probably surer and more accurate in your answer for the right figure.
Figure 3

19. Three Systems of Memory
The moment you pay attention to information in sensory memory, that information enters short-term memory. Then that information remains in short-term memory for a few seconds. If you rehearse that information, it stays; if you do not, it disappears.
Figure 4

20. Memory Centers in the Brain
Researchers have identified the parts of the brain that are involved in memory.
Figure 5

21. The Processes of Memory
Memory involves three processes.
Figure 7

22. Elizabeth Loftus 1944–
“One of the things that we know about memory for very upsetting experiences, traumatic experiences, is that the memory does not work like a videotape recorder.”
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27. memory: the input, storage, and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced
Vocab1

28. encoding: the transforming of information so the nervous system can process it
Vocab2

29. storage: the process by which information is maintained over a period of time
Vocab3

30. retrieval: the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory
Vocab4

31. sensory memory: very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor
Vocab5

32. short-term memory: memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and in duration by the subject’s active rehearsal
Vocab6

33. maintenance rehearsal: a system for remembering that involves repeating information to one-self without attempting to find meaning in it
Vocab7

34. chunking: the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember
Vocab8

35. semantic memory: knowledge of language, including its rules,
words, and meanings
Vocab9

36. episodic memory: chronological retention of the events of one’s life
Vocab10

37. declarative memory: stored knowledge of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection
Vocab11

38. procedural memory: permanent storage of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection
Vocab12

39. recognition: memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has or has not experienced before
Vocab13

40. recall: memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material
Vocab14

41. reconstructive processes: the alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual’s experiences, attitudes, or inferences
Vocab15

42. confabulation: the act of filling in memory gaps
Vocab16

43. schemas: conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the world
Vocab17

44. eidetic memory: the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
Vocab18

45. decay: fading away of memory over time
Vocab19

46. interference: blockage of a memory by previous or subsequent memories or loss of a retrieval cue
Vocab20

47. elaborative rehearsal: the linking of new information to material that is already known
Vocab21

48. mnemonic devices: techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information
Vocab22

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