1. The Civil Rights Struggle

2. Civil Rights 14th Amendment
It would take more than 100 years for African Americans to secure their civil rights—the rights of full citizenship and equality under the law.
14th Amendment

3. Segregation
The social separation of the races was known as segregation.

4. Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 Supreme Court of the United States
The Court upheld the Louisiana State Supreme Court's decision and declared that the "Separate Car Act" was constitutional as long as there were separate but equal accommodations for both whites and blacks. It further stated that the legal distinction made by the Act did not in any way destroy the legal equality of the two races.
Louisiana State Supreme Court
Rejected Plessy's argument that Judge Ferguson's ruling should be overturned; the Court affirmed the constitutionality of the Separate Car Act and further stated Plessy refused to admit he was black.
Criminal District Court for the Parish of Orleans
Judge Ferguson of state district court found Plessy guilty of not leaving the car for whites when asked to; denied claim that Separate Car Act was unconstitutional because Louisiana could regulate its railroad companies however it saw fit as long as equal accommodations were provided.

5. Civil Rights Organizations
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) worked through the courts to challenge laws that denied African Americans their rights.
The National Urban League helped improve opportunities for African Americans in cities.
These groups and others built a civil rights movement. It made an important gain when President Harry Truman ordered an end to segregation in the armed forces.

6. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, NAACP lawyers successfully argued that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.
It violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s principle of equal protection under the law.
Nettie Hunt and her daughter, Nickie, sit on the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court. May 1954

7. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was a main leader of the civil rights movement.
He believed in nonviolent resistance. He helped organize marches and boycotts.
He inspired thousands with his “I Have a Dream” speech about hopes for racial equality and harmony.

8. Nonviolent Resistance
African American students staged “sit-ins” at lunch counters that served only whites.
Seen as a form of Civil Disobedience
White and African American “Freedom Riders” rode buses together to protest segregation.
Such protests were met with violence by whites.

9. The Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public facilities, employment, education, and voter registration.
It banned discrimination by race, color, gender, religion, and national origin.

10. The Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Twenty-fourth Amendment outlawed poll taxes.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 further protected access of minorities to the polls.

11. Ongoing Challenges

12. Affirmative Action
Affirmative action programs were intended to make up for past discrimination. They encouraged the hiring and promoting of minorities and women, and the admission of more minority students to colleges.
Critics complained that affirmative action programs gave preferential treatment to women and minorities, amounting to discrimination against men and whites.

13. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 1978
Supreme Court of the United States
Writing for a divided Court, Justice Powell holds that the quota system used by the University of California at Davis medical school is unconstitutional, but that race could be used as a "plus" in the application process.
Supreme Court of California
The California Supreme Court agrees with the Superior Court and declares the special admissions program unconstitutional. In addition, the court orders that Bakke be admitted to the medical school at the University of California at Davis.
Superior Court of Yolo County, California
After his second rejection, Bakke files his case in a trial court. The superior court declares that the special admissions policy "operated as a racial quota" and violates federal and state constitutions and Title VI. It also says that race cannot be used as a factor for admissions. However, the Court does not order Bakke's admission because he did not prove that he would have been admitted if the special admissions policy did not exist.

14. Racial Profiling
The struggle for equal rights continues. Many Americans are subject to racial profiling—being singled out as suspects because of the way they look Some become victims of hate crimes.