1. Ch. 9 Memory
Mr. McElhaney
PLHS

3. Remembering is an Active Process
Memories can be lost and revised
Types of Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Info that appears to be lost may still be in memory
Problems with memory:
Forgetting and storage issues
Recovered memories are problematic
Strategies such as Mnemonics can improve memory

4. Basics
Definition- Memory is an active system that receives, stores and organizes, alters, and recovers information
Encoding- info is changed into usable and storable form
Encoding-Storage-Retrieval

5. 3 Part System Memory
Sensory
STM (Working)
LTM

6. Sensory Memory New info is perceived through the senses
Info is held exactly as perceived for a few seconds (Transduced)
Preceding short term Memory

7. All of the Senses: Use Transduction:
The process of changing energy (stimulus) to a form that can be processed by the nervous system-
For example- light to a form that can be recognized by the retina.

8. Dual System in Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Small desk and file cabinet concept

10. Fig. 9. 2 Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps
Fig. 9.2 Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps. Incoming information is first held for a second or two by sensory memory. Information selected by attention is then transferred to temporary storage in short-term memory. If new information is not rapidly encoded, or rehearsed, it is forgotten. If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively permanent, although retrieving it may be a problem. The preceding is a useful model of memory; it may not be literally true of what happens in the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 1995).

11. Short Term Memory 1 Is working memory Includes Selective attention
Holds small amounts of info for a brief time
Encoding in STM-
memories are stored by images
And phonetically- by sound, words and letters

12. Short Term Memory 2 Storehouse for small amounts of info
Phone numbers/shopping lists
Working memory holds info while other activities are taking place.
Is sensitive to interruption + interference

13. Processing info helps Memory
Connecting to LTM
Chunking
Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal

14. Short Term Memory 3 Limited size = 7 “slots”/Information bits
Good mem = 9 bits
Recoding= reorganizing information
Chunking = form of recoding, creating connections/groups between info
Rehearsal- repeating info increases STM and can lead to transfer to LTM

15. Elaborate Rehearsal –
Linking new info to memories in LTM will improve memory
Elaborate = extend, think about info as you study
Ask yourself “why” why would that be true?
Try to relate new ideas to your own experiences and knowledge

16. Elaborate Rehearsal when you don’t even know you’re doing it.
Your understanding of academic material improves and your memory improves with the number of content interactions;
For Example when we are in class we:
Above all the organism needs to try to learn the stuff
Listen (auditory interaction)
Visualize
Take notes (processing the visual, and auditory)
Think (which is processing)
Asking questions (evidence of thinking)
Summarize (which is thinking, and engaging in the material/ also monitoring comprehension)
Reviewing notes at home (more thinking and engaging in the material)
READ (tons of processing if you really read)
Discussion (shows you are thinking)
Extended writing (massive amounts of thinking)

17. Long Term Memory Found in the Cortex of Brain
Hippocampus clearly associated with memory (see brain map of memory)
permanent storehouse for Memory
Everything you know goes into LTM
Important + Meaningful info gets transferred to LTM
The more you know the easier it is to add memory

19. Brain Anatomy and Memory
Locations of memory is identified through brain mapping
Experiments through Electroconvulsive Shock destroys memory
Mostly effects recent memories
Before Consolidation

20. Brain #2
Hippocampus= closely associated with LTM (Thalamus is also associated with LTM)
Used in Consolidation of memory
Known as the “Switching Station” between STM and LTM
Grows neurons that make new connections with in the brain
Damage to hippocampus = Anterograde amnesia= inability to store new memories LTM (“50 First Dates”)

21. Brain 3 3lbs of brain Cerebral Cortex- multiple areas associated
Pre-Front of Cortex = Episodic Memory- events
Back area of Cortex = Semantic Memory- ideas

22. Current Research: Stimulation from environment promotes new synapses
New experiences alter the functioning of existing synapses
Neurotransmitters associated in memory- Glutamate, acetylcholine,
Memory problems associated with Alzheimer’s related to a deficiency in neurons that use acetylcholine and found in hippocampus and cortex
Drugs that increase Acetylcholine in synapses improve memory
“Formation of memories is associated with changes in synapses and strengthens and networks”

24. Long Term Memory Encoding = storage (LTM) stored based on meaning
Recoding/reorganizing/revision is present in LTM
example- Chunking can/will work in LTM
Constructive Processing = updating memory
Fills in the gaps of memory with logical conclusions or extensions, or inferences
(Pseudo Memories are false memories)
Relates to how we can sometimes not know the source of some memories

25. Organization of Info in LTM
Patterns of Association = memory structure
Examples: rules, images, symbols, similarities, formal meaning, personal meaning
Network Model (or schema)
Associations of new of linked ideas
We make organization based on linked meanings

26. Memory Aids
Chunking info= try to link 2-3 or more facts into larger chunks and your memory will improve
Key to memory is to find meaning
Always think about how you feel about things

27. Fig. 9.7 In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated with specific times and places).

28. Types of LTM = skill and fact
Procedural- Skill
Conditioned Response
Learned Actions
Automatic
Lower brain-cerebellum
Typing and Driving Actions

29. Types of Memory Declarative- Facts Episodic Memory= experiences
Names, faces, dates, words, ideas
Expressed in words and symbols
Semantic Memory
Encyclopedia of basic knowledge
You don’t forget
Episodic Memory= experiences
Autobiographic
When we access we re-experience
Most easily forgotten LTM

30. Memory Formation Consolidation- the forming of LTM memory
Takes time to move info from STM to LTM
Meaning is key

31. Models of Memory
Why do some stimuli leave no more than a fleeting impression and others remain in memory forever? (see chart Pg. 244)
5 models or explanations for how memory works
Information Processing
Levels of Processing
Transfer Appropriate Processing
Parallel Distributed Processing
Multiple Memory System

32. Re-integrative Memories
Memories in LTM
Can be triggered by cues
Cues (associations/clues) always enhance memories
Triggered memories are cues to other connected memories
Pictures, smells, songs, sounds
Cue-Dependent Forgetting
Stimuli associated with memory are missing

33. Memory Tasks- LTM Recall Direct Retrieval of Info Who-What Facts
Recognition
Previous learned info is correctly identified
MC tests
Accurate for visuals
Relearning
Reviewing previously exposed to/learned info
25% greater proficiency
Review helps we Re-learn faster.

34. Serial Position Effect
STM
Being able to memorize the beginning and end of a list
But not the middle
Why?-
The end- interference, STM has limited capacity
Primacy Effect- first 2-3 words on list recall is good
Probability of recall decreases for words in the middle of the list and then rises dramatically
Recency Effect- easier to recall end of list because first are in STM rehearsal helps the last are close in STM.

35. Implicit and Explicit Memories
Implicit Memories
We are not aware
Unconscious
Priming
Giving a person limited cues
Info previously learned is reflected in cued responses
Related to implicit memory
Sub-conscious
Explicit Memories
Recall is used
Conscious memories
Trying to remember

36. Forgetting
Encoding Failure: When a memory was never formed in the first place
Memory Traces: Physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored
Memory Decay: When memory traces become weaker; fading or weakening of memories
Disuse: Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved

37. Activity Definition of these terms
State Dependent Learning (Remembering)
Context Dependent Learning (Remembering)
Interference (Forgetting)
Decay (Forgetting)
Proactive Interference (Forgetting)
Retroactive Interference (Forgetting)
Positive Transference (Remembering)
Negative Transference (Forgetting)
Repression (unconscious)
Suppression (conscious)

38. Why do we forget? The Role of Decay and Interference:
Decay- the gradual (over time) disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus (wears out) especially in STM
Interference- a process through which either the storage or retrieval of information is impaired by the presence or other information. (STM forgetting too)
Might occur because one piece of information might interfere with other pieces of info (displaces) pushing it out of memory. (rehearsal prevents displacement STM)
Or, one piece of info makes storage or recall more difficult.
LTM- two types of interference:
Retroactive interference- learning of new info interferes with recall of old info
Proactive Interference- old info interferes with learning or remembering new info.

39. Remembering Context Dependent Memory: State Dependent Memory:
“People remember more of what they learned when conditions during recall match encoding”
Why? We tend to encode features of the environment in which the learning occurred and these features may later serve as retrieval cues.
State Dependent Memory:
A person’s internal state can aid or hamper retrieval (mood)
Positive-recall is easier when positive mood occurs during encoding

40. Positive and Negative Transference
Positive Transference
Mastery of one task aids mastery of a second task
Knowledge and skill in one adds to another
Negative Transference (language)
Skills developed in one situation conflict with those required to master a new task

41. Repression and Suppression
Repression (unconscious)
Memory motivated by forgetting
Forgetting painful troubling or embarrassing memories
Held out of consciousness
Sensitive to emotional events
Use repression to protect themselves from threatening thoughts
Suppression (conscious)
An active conscious attempt to put something out of mind
We actively avoid remembering upsetting information
Painful upsetting event avoided suppression could be repression

42. Amnesia Anterograde- Amnesia “50 First Dates”
Forgetting invents that follow an injury
“These patients are also able to keep information temporarily in working memory, which depends on the activity of dopamine neurons in the prefrontal cortex. So the hippocampus is crucial in the formation of new episodic memoires, but implicit memory, procedural memory, and working memory appear to be governed by other regions of the brain.”
Retrograde (before) Amnesia
Forgetting events that occur before an injury or trauma
Korsakoffs Syndrome
Korsakoff's syndrome (also called Korsakoff's dementia, is a neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the brain. Its onset is linked to chronic alcohol abuse and/or severe malnutrition.

43. Sleep + Memory 90 minute nap helps speed up learning Naps help
Sleep improves brains ability to remember info
Important for memory consolidation
Increases procedural memory
During sleep-
Short term memories in Hippocampus and are then transferred to long term storage in Neo-Cortex
90 minute nap helps speed up learning
Naps help
Using your brain reduces  risk of Alzheimer’s (crosswords)

44. False Memories video Video 2
Repressed Memories
Many traumatic events retained in the unconscious mind which affects conscious thoughts feelings and behavior no conscious memory.
1-4 girls are molested
When people say they have recovered memories it is probably true, but still is a problem for false memories.
Spontaneous Recovery (study said)
37% of time spontaneous recovery memories were corroborated
Memories recovered in Therapy were not corroborated – should be seen cautiously

45. Memory Supports Making Notes- write things down
Prevents info from slipping out of short term memory before you can review it and store it more permanently
Mnemonics “strategies for placing information into an organized context in order to remember it”

46. To Improve Memory Training to improve memory Use chanting Association
Memory Strategy is Mnemonics
Basic Principles
Use mental pictures
Make things meaningful
Make info Familiar- connect to what you already know
Mental associations- more outrageous = easy to remember

47. Memory Aides Recitation Summarize aloud while you learn
You practice retrieving information
While reading stop and try to reinforce by re-stating info
Elaborate Rehearsal
Emotion aides memory

48. Method of Loci: remembering through visualization of location and associations- Use the location like a map as mental picture.

49. Guidelines for Effective Studying
Relate new info to knowledge already stored.
Organize The Information:
Create an outline or overall context for learning
Repetition- (rehearsal) not necessarily works well for LTM (but on a limited basis)
Distributed Practice-
Spread out learning over time
Use Elaborative Rehearsal
Self-Testing:
Practice retrieving information you want to remember
Address main points from memory
Flashcards

50. Reading A Textbook: What do successful students do?
Monitor understanding
Re-read difficult sections
Deep level processing
think about each new topic in relation to other material
Helps organize material

51. Lecture Notes: Take notes on the important ideas
Use your own words to express ideas
Think about what is being said, draw connections with other matieral
Review the lecture note and fill in missing details
Summarize major points

52. PQ4R (strategy) Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review
All designed to increase the depth of processing
Preview: Skim the chapter- look at headings, bold face, italicized words. Get a general idea of what is in the chapter and how it is organized (review the entire chapter then, more closely the individual sections)
Question: before reading each section ask yourself what content will be covered and what information you should be getting from it.
Read: and think about the material, monitor understanding. Are you able to answers earlier questions?
Reflect: as you read think of your own examples, create visual representations of the content; Ask yourself what the material means; consider how each section relates to other sections in the chapter and other content in the book
Recite: at the end of each section, recite the major points out loud; be active… put the ideas in your own words (a form of self testing)
Review: at the end of the chapter, review all the material, review how the material is organized

53. Basics: from Idiots Guide to Psych: Memory
Our memory doesn’t mind very well—it often misremembers, forgets, and makes mistakes.
The three mental operations required for memory are encoding (putting information in), storage (filing it away), and retrieval (finding it); forgetting is a failure in one of these areas.
Mnemonics are very effective memory aids that help us store information in a way that enables us to easily recall it later on. And the use of written reminders and other memory strategies can be especially useful for the elderly, who have more problems remembering recent events.
Sleep is believed to be actively involved in consolidating memory, especially procedural memories.
Mental and physical exercise can slow the impact of degenerative neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s.
False memories can fool us and professionals as well; although not likely, it is possible to remember serious childhood trauma that never that never happened. As far as forgetting traumatic things that did happen, the truth is still up in the air. However, the vast majority of people remember ongoing traumatic events.