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Valerie Kline, PhD February 2019

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1 Valerie Kline, PhD February 2019
Long Term Memory Valerie Kline, PhD February 2019

2 A day of the week: Thursday A government leader: King A type of bird: Cardinal A famous psychologist: Freud A menu item: Wine A personality trait: Charm A vegetable: Cabbage Associated with heat: Stove A round object: Ball Found in the jungle: Leopard A crime: Robbery A baseball position: Pitcher Associated with cold: North Song Accompaniment: Banjo Taken to a birthday party: Present A girls name: Susan A type of footgear: Boots A manmade structure: Bridge A weapon: Cannon A sweet food: Banana An assertion of possession: Mine A large city: Tokyo A sign of happiness: Smile A student: Pupil A long word: Notwithstanding Has four wheels: Toyota A part of a bird: Bill A member of the family: Grandfather A happy time of year: Birthday A part of a word: Letter A tool: Wrench Found next to a highway: Motel A type of sports equipment: Racket Part of a building: Chimney Made of leather: Saddle A tropical plant: Palm

3 Long Term Memory What did you do Saturday night?
What is the capital of Texas? Remembering to meet your friend for lunch after class. Singing a song you heard a friend sing earlier in the day. Riding a bicycle. Episodic, semantic, prospective, implicit, procedural

4 Long Term Memory How to get info into LTM How to get info out of LTM
What is the organization of LTM Sensory store Short-term memory Long-term memory Attention Control Processes Retrieval

5 Long Term Memory is a library
Actively categorizes, catalogs, and cross- references new material

6 Long Term Memory Acquisition Retrieval How to get info into LTM
Incidental vs intentional learning Rehearsal Maintenance Elaborative Depth of processing Associative links How to get info out of LTM Depends on how tested Context dependent memory Direct vs indirect tests

7 Acquisition How to get info into LTM
Incidental vs intentional learning Rehearsal Maintenance Elaborative Depth of processing Retrieval paths

8 Incidental vs intentional learning

9 Acquisition Memory acquisition includes intentional learning and incidental learning. In either case, the person must pay attention to the material to be remembered. The product of this intellectual engagement is what is stored in memory. - Acquisition includes cases of both intentional and incidental learning; in both types of learning, attention and mental engagement with the to-be-remembered material is required.

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11 Rehearsal Two Types of Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal—reciting
Relational or elaborative rehearsal—linking

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13 Entering Long-Term Storage
Relational or elaborative rehearsal is superior Repeated exposure does not guarantee memory For example, try to remember the design details of a penny Recite a phone number Relational or elaborative rehearsal is superior to maintenance rehearsal for establishing information in LTM. Even repeated exposure to information does not guarantee encoding in LTM. For example, try to remember the design details of a penny

14 Elaborate Encoding Craik & Tulving (1975) Example Result Elaborate
“The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.” Better memory Simple “She cooked the chicken.” Worse memory Craik & Tulving (1975) showed that words appearing in more elaborate sentences: “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.” Were better remembered than the same words in simple sentences: “She cooked the chicken.”

15 Elaborate Encoding Craik & Tulving (1975)
Craik & Tulving (1975) showed that words appearing in more elaborate sentences: “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.” Were better remembered than the same words in simple sentences: “She cooked the chicken.”

16 Elaborate Encoding Elaborate sentences result in richer associative links This benefit for words that were encoded in elaborate sentences may be the result of richer retrieval paths—paths that guide one’s thoughts toward the content to be remembered. More elaborative encoding creates more retrieval paths.

17 Depth of Processing

18 Processing for Memory Understanding promotes memory
How well someone remembers will depend on the depth at which he or she processed the information. shallow processing: encoding that emphasizes superficial characteristics deep processing: encoding that emphasizes meaning Some forms of engagement are more effective than others at facilitating later recall. Specifically, deep processing (e.g., involving meaning) leads to better recall than shallow processing (e.g., involving surface form). This is why we remember best what we have understood best. Attention-to-meaning helps us to find and establish memory connections that can later guide us back to the to-be-remembered material.

19 Entering Long-Term Storage
Shallow processing—superficial Deep processing—meaningful RUN Shallow processing – engaging the information in a relatively superficial way For example, making a decision about a typeface Deep processing—engaging the information in a more meaningful way For example, thinking about meaning

20 Craik & Tulving, 1975 SHARK case: Is this in capital letters?
rhyme: Does this word rhyme with BLOCK? sentence: Does this word fit in the following sentence - The key was hidden in the fake _______ . Question Word Response SHARK

21 Levels of Processing (Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Study Word: SHARK During study, answer one of these: physical: Is this in capital letters? auditory: Does this word rhyme with BLOCK? semantic: Does this word fit in the following sentence - The key was hidden in the fake _______ . Question Word Response

22 “Deeper” processing leads to better memory
Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrieval Consider learning as a way to establish indexing, a path to the information Connections between to-be-remembered items facilitates retrieval

23 Entering Long-Term Storage
Imagine an experiment in which you cross depth of processing (three levels) Typeface task (shallow) Phonological task (intermediate) Semantic task (deep) And intention to learn (two levels) Incidental learning Intentional learning

24 Entering Long-Term Storage

25 Entering Long-Term Storage
Depth of processing strong Intention to learn has no direct effect Intention to learn can lead you to choose a deeper strategy Depth of processing has a strong effect Compare rows of table Intention to learn does not have a measurable effect Compare columns of table Any effects of intention to learn are indirect; it all depends on whether the participant chooses a deep-processing strategy.

26 Associative links connects new material with existing memory
Recall that when we learn, we make connections between the newly acquired material and representations already in memory. These connections serve as retrieval paths when we need to remember the new material.

27 Processing for Memory We remember best the material that we’ve understood. Memory connections link one memory to the next. At the time of recall, these connections serve as retrieval paths.

28 Retrieval How to get info out of LTM Retrieval paths
Context dependent memory Testing Direct vs indirect tests

29 Retrieval paths Spreading activation travels from one node to another, via the associative links Similar to neurons Input sums to reach a threshold, causing firing

30 Spreading Activation Networks suggest an explanation for why hints help us remember Subthreshold activity Subthreshold activity Sums South Dakota’s capital is easier to remember with the hint that the answer is a man’s name. With that hint, “Pierre” receives activation from two nodes and is more likely to reach threshold.

31 Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the to-be-remembered material is organization We memorize well when we find order in the material

32 Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Memory facilitated by organizing and understanding What the memorizer was doing at the time of exposure matters The background knowledge of the memorizer matters

33 Context What is context?
All the other “stuff” in the learning environment that is not directly relevant to the to-be- learned information Ex: mood, environment, sounds, people, time Under what circumstances does context matter & how does it impact memory?

34 Cues (associations) formed
Context Cues (associations) formed to the material

35 Context Context-dependent learning is dependent on the state one is in during acquisition New material is most likely to be recalled when the person is in the same mental, emotional, or biological state as when the material was learned.

36 Context Godden & Baddeley (1975)

37 Godden & Baddeley (1975)

38 Context Godden & Baddeley (1975)

39 Context Context-dependent learning Worse memory Better memory

40 Context Context reinstatement
re-creating the context present during learning, improves memory performance

41 Context Smith (1979) Test Study
Recall the list learned in Room A, while you in either Room A or Room B If you’re in Room B, they also manipulated what room you were thinking about Study Learn a list in Room A Room B Room A Room A

42 Context Smith (1979) Day 1: Study 30 items in Room A
Day 2: Recall Test Recall in Room A: 60% correct Recall in Room B: 40% correct Recall in Room B, Instructed to think about Room A Recall Room B: 60% correct Recall in Room B, Instructed to think about Room A and shown pictures of Room A: 60% correct Recall in Room B, Instructed to think about a room at their home: 30% correct Smith (1979) Day 1: Study items in room A and make it distinctive by pumping in a scent, hanging some pictures, painting it a distinctive color, etc. IV: testing location with 5 levels DV: % words correctly recalled

43 Learning as Preparation for Retrieval
Context effects are robust Environment Noise Similar findings when: Study/Test in a noisy vs. quiet environment Study/Test in a happy vs. a sad mood Study/Test sober vs. drunk Mood

44 Testing Acquisition, storage, and retrieval are not easily separable
New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge Effective learning depends on how the information will later be retrieved

45 A facial expression: A large city: Associated with coal: A fruit: A weapon: A card game: Needed in snow: A girls name: A grammatical tense: A musical instrument: Associated with cold: An article of pottery: A type of illegal activity: Found in the jungle: A social event: A kitchen appliance: A vegetable: A small trinket: Smile Tokyo Mine Banana Cannon Bridge Boots Susan Present Banjo North Pitcher Robbery Leopard Ball Stove Cabbage Charm An alcoholic beverage: A famous psychologist: A clergyman: A member of royalty: A day of the week: Part of the hand: Associated with horse: Part of a building: A type of noise: A vacation rest-stop: A tool: A form of communication: A special day: A member of the family: A request for money: A type of car A long word: Found in the eye: Wine Freud Cardinal King Thursday Palm Saddle Chimney Racket Motel Wrench Letter Birthday Grandfather Bill Toyota Notwithstanding Pupil

46 Encoding Specificity Ps Read target words in either of two contexts
“The man lifted the piano.” “The man tuned the piano.” Cued for recall by a related or unrelated hint Recall the word that was something heavy Recall the word that was something with a nice sound. Barclay, et al., 1974 Context Word Best cue word Heavy lifted Something heavy Music tuned Something with a nice sound

47 WHAT DO YOU THINK HAPPENED?
Barclay et al (1974) Study Group A: The man lifted the piano Group B: The man tuned the piano Extra-list cued recall test, two different cues per person Something heavy Something with a nice sound WHAT DO YOU THINK HAPPENED? Results 46% recalled word with consistent cue 16% recalled word given inconsistent cue For Group A: 46% recall for cue “something heavy” but only 16% recall for cue “something with a nice sound”

48 Think about this image

49 Draw what you saw.

50 Encoding Specificity Encoding specificity
Explains why only one interpretation will be drawn Encoding specificity also explains why memory for having seen an ambiguous figure depends on the interpretation being the same at encoding and retrieval.

51 Learning as Preparation for Retrieval
Fisher & Craik (1977) Participants told to remember the second word of a word pair that was semantically related or rhymed During testing, the primes were presented as cues or hints Fisher & Craik (1977) presented participants with word pairs and asked them to remember the second word. The first word served as context. The word pairs were either semantically related or rhymed. During testing, the prime words were presented as cues or hints

52 Fisher & Craik (1977) Study: Test:
learned target words in context of question-answering task (like LOP) Does the word rhyme with ____? Does the word belong to the category _____? Does the word fit into the following sentence? Test: Given retrieval cues which were rhyming words, categories or sentences. Saw one of the different LOP for each word that you encoded. Based on LOP, if we just consider the study condition, which task should be best? Now at test, they are given a retrieval cue that can either match or mismatch the encoding condition. There were no identical cues.

53 Word: SHARK Encoding condition Test condition
Does the word rhyme with “bark” Does the word belong to the following category? vertebrates Does the word fit into the following sentence? Joachim caught a _____ while fishing on Sunday. What studied word rhymes with “stark” What studied word was a type of fish? What studied word fits into this sentence? The aquarium just opened a new _____ exhibit.

54 Retrieval Encoding rhyme sentence category
IV & DV of Fisher & Craik (1977)? What do you expect the data to look like?

55 IV & DV of Fisher & Craik (1977)?
IV – 2 of them: encoding task (rhyme, category, or sentence) and retrieval cue (rhyme, category, or sentence) DV: % of word recognized at test What do you expect the data to look like? If we just consider encoding condition what would the data look like? What effect will LOP have on retrieval? IVs: Encoding task and retrieval cue DV: Accuracy

56 Fisher & Craik (1977) Retrieval Encoding rhyme sentence category 40%
29% 43% 10% 78% 50% 15% 46% 81% average 22% 51% 58% How accurate you were at remembering the words from the study list Performance is best when encoding and retrieval conditions are similar: Encoding specificity You can boost memory for a shallowly encoded item by reinstating the task at test. Best when retrieval cue & encoding conditions are similar Levels of processing effect still holds (“deeper” tasks better than “shallow” tasks)

57 Direct vs indirect testing
Direct memory testing recall or recognition Explicit memory Conscious Indirect memory testing priming tasks Implicit memory Unconscious Results like these led to the distinction between two kinds of memory: Explicit memory Revealed by direct memory testing, such as recall or recognition. Accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering a specific prior episode. Implicit memory Revealed by indirect memory testing, such as a priming task. No realization that one is being influenced by past experiences.

58 Different Forms of Memory Testing
Recognition Decide if an items is the right one “Is this the name of the restaurant?” If source memory is available, recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall “Yes, I saw this word before.” In other cases, recognition responses are based on a feeling of familiarity “This feels familiar, so I must have seen it recently.” The studied items are presented to the participant, who decides whether they were encountered before. “Is this the name of the restaurant?” If source memory is available, recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall. “Yes, I saw this word before.” In other cases, recognition responses are based on a feeling of familiarity. “This feels familiar, so I must have seen it recently.”

59 Different Forms of Memory Testing
Recognition Can rely on source memory, similar to recall “Yes, I saw this word before.” Or on familiarity “This feels familiar, so I must have seen it recently.” The studied items are presented to the participant, who decides whether they were encountered before. “Is this the name of the restaurant?” If source memory is available, recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall. “Yes, I saw this word before.” In other cases, recognition responses are based on a feeling of familiarity. “This feels familiar, so I must have seen it recently.”

60 Long Term Memory Sensory store Short-term memory Long-term memory
Attention Control Processes Retrieval

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62 Long Term Memory Explicit Memory - Conscious
Semantic memory Episodic memory Implicit Memory - Unconscious Procedural memory Priming

63 Example slide of explicit and implicit

64 Explicit Memory Explicit Memory – memory for facts and events
Semantic Memory – knowledge What is a banana? What is the capital of Idaho? Episodic Memory – memory for a particular event or context What did you do Saturday night? Semantic is covered in a later chapter

65 Semantic Memory

66 Episodic Memory Memory for a particular event or memory tied to a particular context Difficult because typically lots of similar experiences to confuse you What did you do Saturday night? – lots of Saturday nights

67 Double disassociation between episodic and semantic memory

68 Types of Memory Implicit Memory – prior experience influences later performance (without any attempt to use or access that prior experience) Procedural“physical memory” Writing Tying your shoes Priming recent experience with an item changes the response to a later presentation of the same or related item Singing a song you heard a friend sing earlier in the day. Propaganda effect Mere exposure effect Jacoby & Dallas (1981) Give general example (e.g., memory is more than what we think of, more than our memories of our life events)

69 Implicit Memory Implicit memory involves processing fluency—an improvement in the speed or ease of processing Recently encountered items are easier to recognize a second time One way to think about implicit memory is in terms of processing fluency—an improvement in the speed or ease of processing that results from prior practice in using those same processing steps. For instance, just as seeing a stimulus raises the activation level of the relevant detectors, perceiving a word or thinking about its meaning leads to a similar preactivation or fluency in the relevant cognitive mechanisms.

70 Implicit Memory Processing fluency may underlie the feeling of familiarity for stimuli that we have previously encountered

71 Procedural Memory Skill memory: memory for actions
No (necessary) memory of where or when learned Perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them Difficult to articulate. Try describing how to ski or how to ride a bike… can’t do it. But there is a point where we learned to do it and we have memory for the muscle movements, balance, coordination, etc to do it now

72 Priming Events that are outside of our awareness can influence our behavior. Mere-Exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) People like/prefer things that they have previously experienced More memorable, likeable, distinctive, and eyecatching In Clive movie, the psychologist asks him if he rembers any of the doors and he gets sort of angry that he doesn’t remember anything, then she instead asks ‘which do you find more asthetically pleasing?’ this is using the mere exposure effect to reveal his memory even if he doesn’t think of it as memory.

73 Priming Propaganda effect: more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true (Begg et al., 1992) Statements rated as being true even when told original statement is false Discuss politics telling lies and how this is relevant, why it is dangerous

74 Amnesia The distinction between explicit and implicit memory is also supported by evidence from cases of brain damage Amnesia is a disruption of memory due to brain damage

75 Amnesia Clyde Wearing Good memory for generic information
Love for his wife Unable to remember events Disrupted episodic memory but intact semantic memory

76 Amnesia Retrograde amnesia = loss of memory before disruption
Anterograde amnesia = inability to form new long-term memories Retrograde amnesia is an inability to remember events that occurred before the event that triggered the memory disruption. Anterograde amnesia is an inability to remember experiences after the event that triggered the memory disruption.

77 Amnesia H.M. Severe epilepsy
Severe anterograde amnesia, unable to form new long-term memories The person known as H.M. was one of the most studied patients with amnesia. As a last resort in treating H.M.’s case of epilepsy, portions of the brain that caused the seizures were surgically removed. Afterward, H.M. had a severe anterograde amnesia and was unable to recall anything that took place after his surgery, as if nothing could get into long-term memory.

78 Amnesia Korsakoff’s syndrome
Deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) because of alcoholism Severe anterograde amnesia A similar form of anterograde amnesia is observed in people with Korsakoff’s syndrome. This disorder is caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet and is associated with alcoholism.

79 Amnesia Anterograde amnesia No loss of existing memories.
Damage to the hippocampus and surrounding brain regions Difficulty forming new long-term memories Both H.M. and patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome have damage to the hippocampus and surrounding brain regions. However, note that damage to the hippocampus does not disrupt memories that are already established. Instead, the hippocampus is important for memory acquisition, or creating new memories.

80 Amnesia Amnesia supports the distinction between explicit and implicit memory Anterograde amnesia affects explicit memory, while implicit memory is preserved

81 Amnesia For instance, in 1911 Swiss neurologist Édouard Claparède performed an informal experiment with a Korsakoff- syndrome patient When introducing himself to the patient, he hid a pin in his hand, which pricked the patient Later, the patient could not explicitly remember Claparède but refused to shake his hand, saying, “Sometimes pins are hidden in people’s hands.”

82 Amnesia Amnesic patients demonstrating preserved implicit memories without explicit memory Knowing the answer to a trivia question the second time around Preferring a musical melody that they had been exposed to before

83 Amnesia Anterograde amnesics can learn new implicit tasks.
Preserved implicit with impaired explicit memory. People with anterograde amnesia also demonstrate improvements in procedural learning, which is another kind of implicit memory. Suggestion: A good example of an implicit task that can be shown in an image is drawing a star using a mirror.

84 Amnesia Double dissociation
Impairment of explicit with preserved implicit (HM) Impairment of implicit with preserved explicit (?) Are there any patients who show the reversed pattern?

85 Amnesia Controls show both SMO46: explicit memory with no fear
A double dissociation between explicit and implicit memory (Bechara et al., 1995): One patient had damage to the hippocampus but an intact amygdala, while the other patient had damage to the amygdala and an intact hippocampus. In the experiment, a blue light was followed by a loud boat horn, while other colors were not. The learned association between the blue light and the horn was probed both explicitly (with a question) and implicitly (by looking at conditioned fear). Controls show both explicit memory and a fear response SMO46: explicit memory with no fear WC1606: fear with no explicit memory

86 Amnesia Hippocampus damage Amygdala damage Fear with no memory
Memory with no fear Hippocampus damage disrupted the ability to report explicitly which light was associated with the horn, but this patient still demonstrated an implicit fear response to the blue light. Amygdala damage disrupted the implicit fear response to the blue light, but this patient could still report explicitly which light was associated with the horn.

87 Entering Long-Term Storage
Deeper processing ensures better recall


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