1. Chapter 7
cognition

2. Thinking and Mental Images
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
Thinking (cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information
processing includes organizing, understanding, and communicating information to others
Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality

3. LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities
Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features
Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world
a platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept (a mammal that lays eggs and has bird-like webbed feet)

4. LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
Prototype: a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept
prototypes develop according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category
Schemas: mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people
Scripts: schemas for familiar sequences of activities

5. LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Problem solving: occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
Decision making: identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives

6. LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found
Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
will always result in a correct solution if one exists to be found
e.g., mathematical formulas

7. LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Heuristic: educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb”
representative heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

8. LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Heuristics (cont’d)
availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples
working backward from the goal is a useful heuristic
break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each subgoal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer

9. LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Identify Key Contributors
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem
Köhler’s work with Sultan
“aha!” moment
problem may be recognized as similar to another previously solved, for example

10. Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions
Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past

11. Figure 7.2 The String Problem How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time?

12. Figure 7.2 (continued) Solution to the String Problem The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.

13. Figure 7.3 The Dot Problem Can you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once?

14. Figure 7.3 (continued) Solution to the Dot Problem When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”

15. Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness
Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs

16. LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
Creativity
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
AP: Characteristics of Creative Thought & Creative Thinkers
Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways

17. LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
Creativity
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
AP: Characteristics of Creative Thought & Creative Thinkers
Creativity (cont’d)
convergent thinking: a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic
divergent thinking: a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (a kind of creativity)

19. LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
Difficult concept to measure

20. Theories of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
Spearman’s Theory
g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence
s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence

21. Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
Gardner’s Theory
Nine types of intelligence

22. Theories of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence

23. Theories of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence: there are three kinds of intelligences
analytical
creative
practical

24. Theories of Intelligence
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
Triarchic theory of intelligence (cont’d)
analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving
creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems
practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; “street smarts”

25. IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/Identify Key Contributors
Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score
allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age groups
Harder to Find IQ for adults because mentale age becomes stable

27. IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/Identify Key Contributors
Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence

29. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests
Reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people
Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure
A test can be reliable but not valid (test in Greek), however, it cannot be valid unless it is reliable
Tests may be valid or reliable for one age level but not for another (ex- this chapter in Psychology)

30. Types of Validity
Face Validity- measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all of the knowledge or skills that are suppose to be included in the domain being tested
Content Validity- measure of the extent to which the content of the test measures all the knowledge or skills that are supposed to be included within the domain being tested
Criterion related validity- measure of the extent to which a test’s results correlate with other accepted measures of what is being tested
Predictive validity- measure of the extent to which the test accurately forecasts a specific future result (ex- SAT/success in college)
Construct validity- the extent to which the test actually measures the hypothetical construct or behavior it is designed to assess

31. Unreliable and Invalid
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests
Construct (i.e., “intelligence”)
TEST
Scores on test
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32. Reliable but Invalid Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
Construct (i.e., “intelligence”)
TEST
Scores on test
Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!
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33. Reliable and Valid Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
Construct (i.e., “intelligence)
TEST
Scores on test
Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!
Menu

34. What effects reliability?
Number of items on a test
Emotional state of the person taking the test
Directions clearly stated
Type of Test
How answers are marked
Physical surroundings

35. Standardized and Norms
Psychometrics – measurement of mental traits, abilities and processes
Psychometricians are involved in test development in order to measure some construct or behavior that distinguishes people
Constructs- ideas that help summarize a group of related phenomena or objects; hypothetical abstractions related to behavior and defined by groups of objects or events
Ex- Happiness, honesty

36. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests
Standardization: the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed
norms: scores from the standardization group
most intelligence tests follow a normal curve
Norms are used as a standard for assessing the performances of subsequent test takers (IQ/SAT)
Same directions and scoring guide must be used in order for a test to be standardized

37. AP: Interpret the Meaning of Scores in Terms of the Normal Curve
Figure 7.4 The Normal Curve The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal curve. The dotted vertical lines each represent one standard deviation from the mean, which is always set at 100. For example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean, and the area under the curve indicates that percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test. Note: The figure shows the mean and standard deviation for the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (Stanford-Binet 4). The Stanford-Binet Fifth Edition was published in 2003 and now has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores.
AP: Interpret the Meaning of Scores in Terms of the Normal Curve

38. Individual Tests of Intelligence
Measurement is a very important part of scientific study
Intelligence tests were attempted to be developed by Alfred Binet in 1905
Objective: identify those children who could not benefit from regular schooling
Consisted of 30 task to be performed by children (everyday experiences)
Binet and Simon (his assistant) made one important revision to this test: age appropriate tasks (3 and up)
There work became very popular in America and was fit for American conditions
Lewis Terman of Standford Univerity arranged the first American Test (Revised: Standford-Binet

39. What is on the Stanford-Binet Test?
Auditory Memory (9,1,6,3,2)
Picture Vocabulary (car, desk, chair, coin)
Verbal reasoning (A story and identify what doesn’t make sense)
Mathematical Ability
Visual Memory (look at a picture for 5 seconds and redraw it)

40. Other tests used in the United States
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) 4-6.5
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Revised (WAIS-R) adulthood
All tests are composed of two parts: verbal and performance
Difference between Binet and Wechsler tests: Binet’s tests have different items measuring different ability mixed together while Wechsler has increasing difficulty

41. Group Tests of Intelligence
During WWI, the army was faced with the problem of not having enough time to give tests to thousands of men
Decided to give group tests
California Test of Mental Maturity (CTMM): divided into a language section and nonlanguage section
Language section: number problems, verbal comprehension, delayed recall
Nonlanguage section: Opposites and similiarities
Another widely used group intelligence test is Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test- items of different factors associated with intelligence are mixed together
Ex- Jim is taller than Bob. Jane is shorter than Bob. Susie is shorter than Jane. Who is the shortest person?

42. Group Intelligence tests for school use have certain advantages over individual intelligence tests
There are not enough trained psychologists available to give each child an individual test
Cost for each student would be to high
Easily scored and read
Drawbacks of Group Testing
Not give as valid of a measure of a child’s intellectual ability as individual intelligence tests
Children may be emotionally upset or not feeling well when the test is given
Not understand the directions or motivated to do their best
Cheating

43. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests
Deviation IQ scores: a measure of intelligence that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15
IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above the mean
IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean

44. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests
Crystallized intelligence: knowledge we have accumulated over time
Remains steady as we age
Fluid intelligence: ability to problem solve, reason abstractly, and pick up new skills
Diminishes with age

45. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Designing Reliable and Valid Tests/ Cultural Definitions of Intelligence/Culture-Fair Test Uses
Cultural bias: the tendency for IQ tests to reflect the culture of test designers
E.g. Which of the five is least like the other four? DOG—CAR—CAT—BIRD—FISH
Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test (Chitling Test)
Culturally fair tests: require use of nonverbal abilities rather than verbal knowledge that might be culture-specific

46. Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence
Usefulness of IQ tests
IQ tests are generally valid for predicting academic success and job performance
Neuropsychology
Head injury, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders

47. Intellectual Disability
LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes
AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing
Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder): a person exhibits deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior
IQ falls below 70
adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age
formerly known as mental retardation or developmentally delayed

48. Intellectual Disability
LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes
AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing
Levels of severity now diagnosed based on level of adaptive functioning and the level of support the individual requires rather than IQ tests
Intellectual disability can vary from mild to profound
Causes of developmental delay:
deprived environments, chromosome and genetic disorders, alcohol, dietary deficiencies and toxins in the environment

49. LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing
Gifted: the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above
Are gifted people weird, socially awkward, physically weak, and/or more likely to suffer from mental illness (as stereotypes would suggest)?

50. LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing
Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults, for the most part
Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his “Termites”, even to the point of interfering on their behalf

51. LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing
Emotional intelligence: awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to be self-motivated, to feel what others feel, and to be socially skilled
viewed as a powerful influence on success in life

52. Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
LO 7.8 The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence
Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases
Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50 (50%)
Flynn effect: IQ scores steadily increasing over time in modernized countries
The Bell Curve: a book that made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence
stereotype threat

54. LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use
Language: a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others

55. Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use/Identify Key Contributors
Grammar: the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language
Noam Chomsky
Phonemes: the basic units of sound in a language
Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning within a language

56. Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use
Syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences
Semantics: rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social niceties of language

57. Language and Cognition
LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language
AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use/Identify Key Contributors
Piaget: concepts precede language
Vygotsky: language helps develop concepts
Linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
Sapir & Whorf
Cognitive universalism: theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language

58. Animal Studies in Language
LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language
AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use
Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas.
Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.

59. Ways to Improve Thinking
LO 7.11 Ways to Improve Thinking
Mental exercise
Training in working memory may improve working memory capacity, but may or may not improve fluid intelligence
Physical exercise
Aerobic fitness is associated with improved cognitive function at all life stages