ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN: COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS, 6th ED

ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN: COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS, 6th ED
WORKSHOPS IN CANADA AND USA 2019 JEROME M. SATTLER Power Point Presentation Based Primarily on Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations and Applications, Sixth Edition, by Jerome M. Sattler, Copyright © 2018 by Jerome M. Sattler Publisher, Inc.

Contents Introduction and Overview Session 1: Evaluator Considerations
Session 2: Assessment Considerations Session 3: Children with Special Needs Session 4: Expert Witness

Introduction and Overview

Poem Reflecting Childhood
PUT SOMETHING IN “Draw a crazy picture, Write a nutty poem, Sing a mumble-gumble song, Whistle through your comb. Do a loony-goony dance 'Cross the kitchen floor, Put something silly in the world That ain't been there before.” ―Shel Silverstein

The World of Technology [1]
Neural Inequality Future where neural inequality may exist People might enhance their thinking with a chip implanted in their brain Some risk of thought manipulation Powerful people could create thoughts and ideas in other people’s brains People may not be able to distinguish outside thoughts from those that they generate themselves

Neural Inequality (Cont.) Source: Moran Cerf, neuroscientist and business professor, Northwestern University Time, January 28, 2019, p. 33

Protecting Kids from Excessive Use of Cellphones Adults compromise relationships with their infants when they attend to their cellphones instead of to their infants Infants are more negative and less exploratory when parents use their phones Teenagers are now less socially attuned and have more emotional problems than teenagers in prior years

Protecting Kids from Excessive Use of Cellphones (Cont.) “Our digital habits might be getting in the way of our interpersonal relationships.” Source: Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Ph.D., Temple University and Joshua Sparrow, MD, Harvard University Time, January 28, 2019, p. 33

Restoring Dignity to Technology Human history shows that the development of written language moderated our animal impulses We need a new technological enlightment that focuses on online spaces that embrace what makes us truly human, such as programs that help people understand their cognitive biases

Restoring Dignity to Technology (Cont.) Source: Pariser, E. (2019). Restoring dignity to technology. Time, January 28, pp

UNICEF Report Card 2017 [1] Rank Degree of Poverty (less to more) 1
Norway 2 Finland 3 Iceland 4 Denmark 5 Switzerland 12 Australia 32 Canada 33 USA NR New Zealand

UNICEF Report Card 2017 [2] Rank Good Health and Well-Being 1 Portugal
Iceland 3 Spain 4 Germany 5 Norway 23 Australia 29 Canada 36 USA 38 New Zealand

UNICEF Report Card 2017 [3] Rank Quality Education 1 Finland 2 Malta 3
Republic of Korea 4 Mexico 5 Denmark 8 Canada 15 New Zealand 32 USA 39 Australia

UNICEF Report Card 2017 [4] Source: UNICEF Office of Research (2017). ‘Building the future: Children and the sustainable development goals in rich countries’, Innocenti Report Card, 14, UNICEF Office of Research–Innocenti, Florence. Retrieved from

2017 National US Survey of Assessment Practices [1]
Tests Used by School Psychologists in the USA N = 1,359 school psychologists Results Tests used by 50% or more of respondents: BASC-3 (91%) WISC-V (81%) ABAS-3 (69%) KTEA-3 (62%)

Results (Cont.) Tests used by 50% or more of respondents: Connors-3-Parent Rating Scales (61%) WJ-IV Achievement (50%)

Source Benson, N. F., Floyd, R. G., Kranzler, J. H., Eckert, T. L., Fefer, S. A., & Morgan, G. B. (2018). Test use and assessment practices of school psychologists in the United States: Findings from the 2017 National Survey. Journal of School Psychology, 72, 29–48. doi: /j.jsp

Video Links Controversy of Intelligence crash course
Remembering and forgetting crash course

Evaluator Considerations
Session 1 Evaluator Considerations

Chapter 1 [1] Inside front cover Inside back cover
Informal assessments: Table 1-2 (p. 9) Multimethod assessment p. 9 Figure 1-2 (p. 10) Table 1-3 (p. 11)

Chapter 1 [2] Reviewing assessment measures: Table 1-4 (p. 16)
Decision-making model: Figure 1-4 (p. 21)

A Successive Level of Approach to Test Interpretation
Level 1: Full Scale, Total Scale, General Intellectual Ability Level 2: Index, composite, or cluster standard scores Level 3: Scaled scores Level 4: Intersubtest variability Level 5: Intrasubtest variability Level 6: Qualitative analysis

Chapter 2 Normal functioning contrasted with deviant functioning: see pp

Computer-Based Administration [1]
(Material below is in addition to that covered on pp ) Screen vs. Print Size or clarity of visual stimuli Hearing instructions from computer rather than from evaluator Responding on a keyboard or mouse vs. a pen or pencil Touching or dragging on-screen stimuli vs. pointing or speaking

Screen vs. Print (Cont.) Device incompatibility Devices: phones, tablets, laptops Input modes: keyboard, mouse, track pad, touch screen Evaluator factors Scoring responses (digital vs. paper) Recording responses (digital vs. paper)

Research N = 350 participants administered 18 WISC-V subtests Results showed that raw-score equivalents were similar in the digital (Q-Interactive) and paper formats

Source: Daniel, M., & Wahlstrom, D. (2018). Raw-score equivalence of computer-assisted and paper versions of WISC–V. Psychological Services. Advance online publication. doi: /ser

Cloud Storage (p. 49) See the 14 questions on p. 49 that you need to consider before consigning information to a cloud storage site American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct has four standards (see pp ) related to the use of computers in assessment

Chapter 3 APA code of ethics: pp. 62-64
APA’s guidelines for working with people with disabilities: p. 67 APA’s guidelines for psychological evaluation in child protection matters: p. 68 APA’s guidelines for working with transgender and gender nonconforming people : pp

Chapter 4 Review of psychometrics (pp. 91-135)
Example of floor and ceiling effects (see p. 127 for discussion) Next two slides show examples of floor and ceiling effects

UNIT 2: Scaled Score Equivalents of Raw Scores [1]
CUBE Design Subtest (Floor Effects) Ages 5-0 to 5-2 Ages 10-0 to 10-5 Scaled Score Raw Score 1 - 0-1 2 2-4 3 5-7 4 8-10 5 11-12 20 >34 77-80

UNIT 2: Scaled Score Equivalents of Raw Scores [2]
CUBE Design Subtest (Ceiling Effects) Ages 9-3 to 9-5 Ages 18-0 to 21-11 Scaled Score Raw Score 1 - 0-8 2 0-1 9-11 3 2-4 12-14 16 52-55 80 20 >76

Chapter 5 [1] Culturally and linguistically diverse children (pp ) Table 5-4: Interview questions concerning acculturation and language preference (p. 147) Table 5-5: Interview questions concerning parent’s acculturation and language preference (p. 147) Table 5-7: Interview questions for teachers and parents concerning child’s language preference (p. 157)

Chapter 5 [2] Recommendations for being a culturally sensitive evaluator (pp )

Chapter 6 [1] Guidelines for general test administration practices:
Table 6-2 (p. 190) Questions to consider about a child during an assessment: Table 6-3 (pp ) Observing verbal behavior: pp

Chapter 6 [2] Behavior and attitude checklist: Table 6-5 (p. 207)

Test Accommodations (p. 215) [1]
Allowing flexibility in scheduling Administering test over multiple days Allowing flexibility in timing Giving more time to answer questions on timed tests Allowing flexibility in test setting Special lighting Adaptive furniture Small-group setting Individual setting

Permitting frequent test breaks Changing the method of presentation Using Braille Large-print format Magnification Signing test directions and/or test items Auditory amplification

Changing method of response Having child use a Recording device Computer that does not have access to a dictionary or thesaurus Large marking pen or writing tool Having child dictate responses to a scribe

Providing an English–native language glossary for children with a disability who have limited English proficiency Providing a room with Special acoustics (e.g., minimal extraneous noises) for children with a hearing loss Special lighting for children with a visual loss

Test Modifications (p. 215) [1]
Simplifying questions Repeating memory items, even when prohibited by test manual Repeating test directions, even when prohibited by test manual Giving additional time on a timed test even when prohibited by test manual Offering a multiple‑choice response format for items that call for oral definitions

Reading items to child when items are designed to be read by the child Reading directions to child when test requires directions to be read by the child Allowing use of spell-checking and/or grammar-checking on a test designed to measure writing skills Allowing use of a calculator on a test designed to measure computational skills

Shortening test or reducing number of multiple-choice responses Providing additional examples for test items Providing sheets that contain mathematical formulas

Assessment Considerations
Session 2 Assessment Considerations

Chapter 7 [1] “Our purpose is to be able to measure the intellectual capacity of a child who is brought to us in order to know whether he is normal or retarded. ... We do not attempt to establish or prepare a prognosis and we leave unanswered the question of whether this retardation is curable, or even improveable. We shall limit ourselves to ascertaining the truth in regard to his present mental state.” — Alfred Binet

Chapter 7 [2] Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children (E. S. Kit, Trans.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.

Chapter 7 [3] “Intelligence is important in psychology for two reasons. First, it is one of the most scientifically developed corners of the subject, giving the student as complete a view as is possible anywhere of the way scientific method can be applied to psychological problems. Secondly, it is of immense practical importance, educationally, socially, and in regard to physiology and genetics.” — Raymond Cattell

Chapter 7 [4] Cattell, R. B. (1987). Advances in psychology, No. 35. Intelligence: Its structure, growth and action. Oxford, England: North-Holland.

g [1] “The construct of g, originated by Charles Edward Spearman (1863–1945) in the early 20th century, has been the single most significant and influential construct for the study of human intelligence throughout the history of psychological science. (Continued next slide)

g [2] While numerous objections and criticisms from a number of perspectives have been made over that long period, beginning as soon as Spearman described g, and continuing to the present, g continues to be central to both intelligence theory and measurement.” (Buckhalt, 2002, p. 101).

g [3] Source: Buckhalt, J. A. (2002). A short history of g: Psychometrics’ most enduring and controversial construct. Learning and Individual Differences, 13(2), 101–114. doi: /s (02)

Chapter 8 Chapter 8 covers correlates of intelligence

Cognitive Reserve and Brain Reserve [1]
Cognitive reserve refers to capacity to maintain normal cognition in the presence of brain pathology Childhood cognition, educational attainment, occupational attainment, curiosity, and leisure activities all contribute to cognitive reserve

Brain reserve refers to the brain’s resilience in the presence of brain pathology Brain size, number of neuronal connections, and structure of the brain contribute to brain reserve

SOME RESEARCH FINDINGS (Russ, 2018) Better cognition in high school (particularly mechanical reasoning and memory) is associated with decreased odds of getting dementia later in life Low linguistic ability in early life and poorer cognitive function later in life is associated with Alzheimer’s disease

SOME RESEARCH FINDINGS (Cont.) (Russ, 2018) Multiple high-quality epidemiological studies link poorer intelligence in early life with risk of dementia later in life

Source: Russ, T. C. (2018). Intelligence, cognitive reserve, and dementia time for intervention? JAMA Network Open, 1(5), e doi: /jamanetworkopen

Parent Educational Level and Children’S WISC-V FSIQ[1]
PARTICIPANTS N = 1,008 children who were a representative sample from Spain

Parent Educational Level and Children’s WISC-V FSIQ[2]
RESULTS FSIQ Parent Educational Level 84 Did not finish primary school 91 Completed primary school 99 Completed secondary school 105 Completed college

Parent Educational Level and WISC-V FSIQ[3]
CONCLUSIONS Parents’ educational level was a significant predictor of children’s FSIQ Parents’ educational level must be taken into account as a key stratification variable in research studies

Parent Educational Level and Children’s WISC-V FSIQ[4]
Source: Hernández, A., Aguilar, C., Paradell, È., Muñoz, M. R., Vannier, L. C., & Vallar, F. (2017). The effect of demographic variables on the assessment of cognitive ability. Psicothema, 29(4), 469–474. doi: /psicothema

Children Born Preterm [1]
PARTICIPANTS Meta-analysis of 74 studies with 64,061 children born preterm (< 36 weeks)

RESULTS At primary school age, children had lower scores in motor skills, behavior ratings, reading, mathematics, and spelling At secondary school age, similar findings were reported, with the exception of mathematics, where children’s scores were not lower

CONCLUSION Prematurity of any degree can affect the cognitive performance of children throughout childhood

Source: Allotey , J., Zamora, J., Cheong‐See, F., Kalidindi, M., Arroyo‐Manzano, D., Asztalos, E., van der Post, J., Mol, B., Moore, D., Birtles, D., Khan, K. S., & Thangaratinam, S. (2018). Cognitive, motor, behavioural and academic performances of children born preterm: a meta‐analysis and systematic review involving 64,061 children. International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 125(1), 16–25. doi: /

Children Born Very Preterm [1]
PARTICIPANTS Meta-analysis of 60 studies with 6,063 children born very preterm (< 32 weeks) and 5,471 children born at term (controls) RESULT Children born very preterm obtained lower scores on measures of intelligence, executive functioning, and processing speed than children born at term

CONCLUSION Children born very preterm have medium to large deficits in three cognitive domains: intelligence, executive functioning, and processing speed

Source: Brydges, C. R., Landes, J. K., Reid, C. L., Campbell, C., French, N., & Anderson, M. (2018). Cognitive outcomes in children and adolescents born very preterm: A meta‐analysis. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 60(5), 452–468. doi: /dmcn.13685

Developmental Milestones and Adult Intelligence [1]
PARTICIPANTS Mothers of 821 children of the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort study Developmental milestones were recorded when children were 3 years old Danish version of original WAIS (1958) administered when the sample was 22 to 34 years old

RESULTS Later attainment of language and social interaction milestones was associated with lower adult IQs Examples of language milestones: Turning head in right direction Naming objects/animals Naming pictures of objects/animals Forming a sentence

RESULTS (Cont.) Examples of language milestones (con’t): Speaking properly Sharing experiences Examples of social interaction: Building tower with someone else Helping at home Picking up things

RESULTS (Cont.) Examples of social interaction (con’t): Playing ball games with peers CONCLUSION Reaching milestones associated with language and social interaction at 3 years of age is more related to young adult IQs than is reaching milestones associated with walking, eating, dressing, and toilet training

Source: Flensborg‐Madsen, T., & Mortensen, E. L. (2018). Associations of early developmental milestones with adult intelligence. Child Development, 89(2), 636–648. doi: /cdev.12760

Life Outcomes and Intelligence [1](p. 273)
Research shows a strong relationship between intelligence test scores and life outcomes such as economic and social competence Examples Annual income of 32-year-olds in 1993 in U.S. dollars was $5,000 for individuals with IQs below 75, $20,000 for individuals with IQs of 90 to 110, and $36,000 for individuals with IQs above (Murray, 1998).

Examples (Cont.) Measures of general intelligence predict occupational level and job performance “better than any other ability, trait, or disposition and better than job experience” (Schmidt & Hunter, 2004, p. 162). There is a moderate relationship between IQs obtained in childhood (as early as 3 years of age) and later occupational level and job performance, with an overall correlation of about r = .50 (Schmidt & Hunter, 2004).

Examples (Cont.) General intelligence predicts job performance better in more complex jobs (about r = .80) than in less complex jobs (about r = .20; Gottfredson, 2003). Intelligence is related to health and longevity (Gottfredson & Deary, 2004). IQs in childhood predict substantial differences in adult morbidity and mortality, including deaths from cancers and cardiovascular disease (Gottfredson & Deary, 2004).

Examples (Cont.) Children obtaining high scores on intelligence tests at ages 7, 9, and 11 (N = 11,103) had fewer adult hospitalizations for unintentional injuries than those who obtained lower scores (Lawlor et al., 2007). Those with higher intelligence test scores probably had more education, which in turn likely increased their ability to process information and assess risks

Examples (Cont.) Youth identified before age 13 (N = 320) as having profound mathematical or verbal reasoning abilities (top 1 in 10,000 on SAT) were tracked for three decades (Kell et al., 2013): At age 38 many had leadership positions in business, health care, law, higher education, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Results mirror those of Galton (1869).

Paternal Age at Childbearing [1]
Sample All individuals born in Sweden in 1973–2001 (N = 2,615,081) Results Offspring born to fathers 45 years and older, compared with offspring born to fathers 20 to 24 years old, were at heightened risk of ADHD (13.13 times greater) Autism (3.45 times greater)

Results (Cont.) Bipolar disorder (24.70 times greater) Psychosis (2.07 times greater) Suicide attempts (2.72 times greater) Substance use problems (2.44 times greater) Failing a grade (1.59 times greater) Low educational attainment (1.70 times greater)

Conclusions Advancing paternal age is associated with increased risk of psychiatric and academic morbidity in children In older fathers Sperm may not develop fully Sperm may have some form of genetic mutation

Conclusions (Cont.) Older fathers also may have been exposed to Environmental toxins longer than younger fathers and Long exposure to toxins may affect the DNA in the father’s sperm

Source D’Onofrio, B. M., Rickert, M. E., Frans, E., Kuja-Halkola, R., Almqvist, C., Sjölander, A., Larsson, H., & Lichtenstein, P. (2014). Paternal age at childbearing and offspring psychiatric and academic morbidity. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(4), doi: /jamapsychiatry

Executive Functions (EF)

Executive Functions [1]
Executive functions (EF) enable individuals to modulate, control, organize, and direct Complex goal-directed behavior Adaptation to environmental changes and demands Development of social, emotional, and cognitive competence Development of self-regulation of behavior

Primary Executive Functions [1]
Planning and goal setting: ability to plan and reason conceptually, monitor one’s actions, and set goals Organizing: ability to organize ideas and information Prioritizing: ability to focus on relevant themes and details Working memory: ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information in memory

Primary Executive Functions [2]
Shifting: ability to alternate between different thoughts and actions, to devise alternative problem-solving strategies, and to be cognitively flexible Inhibition: ability to inhibit thoughts and actions that are inappropriate for a situation Self-regulation: ability to regulate one’s behavior and monitor one’s thoughts and actions

Developmental Aspects of Executive Functions [1]
EF most closely associated with the frontal lobes of the brain Maturational changes in brain structure and function and in social experiences govern the development of EF

Begin to develop as early as 2 months of age Self-exploration Emerging understanding of volitional actions At 1 year of age Working memory Ability to detect another’s attentional and intentional states

Overall EF has elements Of uniformity—common evolution across EF Of individuality and variation—unique evolution across EF

Intelligence and EF [1] Tests of intelligence correlate moderately—
about .40 to .60—with tests of EF Working memory more closely related to fluid and crystallized intelligence Inhibition and flexibility less closely related to fluid and crystallized intelligence

Intelligence and EF [2] Correlations moderate because IQ tests do not require Complex shifting between different tasks Shifting between competing demands Using self-regulation strategies to maximize long-term objectives Inhibiting less favorable responses

Achievement and EF [1] Writing Essays
Planning and defining the first step Rephrasing and paraphrasing one’s own work and the work of others (cognitive flexibility) Organizing and prioritizing Using accurate syntax

Reading Comprehension
Achievement and EF [2] Reading Comprehension Planning what to read first and which sections to focus on most Organizing the material mentally by its most important points Monitoring one’s comprehension by summarizing material

Independent Studying, Completing Homework, and Long-Term Projects
Achievement and EF [3] Independent Studying, Completing Homework, and Long-Term Projects Planning ahead (time management) Acquiring materials and information (information processing) Setting long-term goals (completing tasks) Self-regulation (balancing needs)

Achievement and EF [4] Independent Studying, Completing Homework, and Long-Term Projects (Cont.) Self-monitoring (remembering to submit completed assignments by a specific time) Cognitive flexibility (ability to modify how one goes about doing projects)

Achievement and EF [4] Test-Taking
Prioritizing and focusing on relevant areas to study Managing time to study before test Managing time during test to answer questions

How EF Are Compromised? By Mental disorder Brain injury
Learning disability Attention difficulties Fatigue Anxiety Stress Depression Motivational deficits

Assessment of EF by Intelligence Tests[1]
WISC-V Block Design Planning Goal setting Organizing Cancellation Self-regulation Ambition

WISC-V (Cont.) Coding Self-regulation Planning Goal setting Digit Span Working memory Letter-Number Sequencing

WPPSI-IV Block Design Planning Goal setting Organizing Bug Search Self-regulation

WPPSI-IV (Cont.) Picture Memory Self-regulation Working memory Cancellation Inhibition Zoo Location

WPPSI-IV (Cont.) Animal Coding Self-regulation Planning Goal setting WJ IV COG Memory for Words Working memory

WJ IV COG (Cont.) Nonword Repetition Working memory Numbers Reversed Attentional control Object-Number Sequencing

WJ IV COG (Cont.) Pair Cancellation Working memory Attentional control Verbal Attention

KABC-II Conceptual Thinking Self-regulation Pattern Reasoning Shifting

KABC-II (Cont.) Rover Planning Goal setting Self-regulation Inhibition

KABC-II (Cont.) Triangles Planning Goal setting Organizing

Source: Sattler, J. M. (2014). Appendix M: Executive Functions in Resource Guide to Accompany Foundations of Behavioral, Social, and Clinical Assessment of Children (6th Ed.). San Diego, CA: Author.

Chapter 9 [1] Description of WISC-V: pp

History of the WISC–V Revisions of the WISC
WISC 1st published in 1949 WISC–R first revision published in 1974 WISC–III next revision published in 1991 WISC–IV next revision published in 2003 WISC–V latest revision published in 2014 Revisions of the WISC David Wechsler, the original author, died in 1982.

WISC-V FSIQs for 5 Ethnic Groups [1]
European American 103.5 African American 91.9 Hispanic American 94.4 Asian American 108.6 Other 100.4

Note: Adapted from Table 5.3 (p. 157) in Weiss et al. (2016)

Source: Weiss, L. G., Locke, V., Pan, T., Harris, J. G., Saklofske, D. H., & Prifitera, A. (2016). WISC–V use in societal context. In L. G. Weiss, D. H. Saklofske, J. A., Holdnack, & A. Prifitera (Eds.), WISC–V assessment and interpretation: Scientist-practitioner perspectives (pp. 123–185). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Scaled Score Ranges for WISC–V Subtests [1] (p. 316)
Table 9-14 14 of the 16 subtests have a scaled score range of 1 to 19 Picture Concepts has a range of 1 to 19 at ages 6-0 to 16-11 2 to 19 at ages 6-0 to 6-3 115

Scaled Score Ranges for WISC–V Subtests [2] (p. 316)
Table 9-14 (Cont.) Letter-Number Sequencing has a range of 1 to 19 at ages 7-4 to 16-11 2 to 19 at ages 7-0 to 7-3 3 to 19 at ages 6-4 to 6-11 4 to 19 at ages 6-0 to 6-3 This means that you can’t automatically compare Letter-Number Sequencing scores at ages 6-0 to 7-3 with those of older ages 116

WISC-V Expanded Index Scores (pp. 292-293)
Technical Report #1 Pearson Verbal (Expanded Crystallized) Index (VECI): SI, VC, IN, CO Expanded Fluid Index (EFI): MR, FW, PCn, AR Source: Raiford, S. E., Drozdick, L., Zhang. O., & Zhou, X. (2015). Expanded index scores. Technical Report #1. Retrieved from

Concurrent Validity of WISC–V VCI, VECI, FRI, and EFI [1]
Criterion WIAT–III VCI VECI FRI EFI Oral Language .78 .80 .33 .55 Total Reading .65 .70 .32 .50 Basic Reading .53 .60 .30 .45 Reading Comprehension and Fluency .25 Written Expression Mathematics Math Fluency .36 -- .31 Total Achievement .74 .40

Complementary Indexes and FSIQ to WIAT–III Total Achievement
WISC–V Index WIAT–III Total Achievement Naming Speed Index (NSI) .29 Symbol Translation Index (STI) .39 Storage and Retrieval Index (SRI) .45 FSIQ .81 Source: See Table 5.14 on p. 104 of the Technical and Interpretive Manual

Interpreting Scaled Scores (p. 417)
13 to 19 always indicate a strength (84th to 99th percentile rank) 8 to 12 always indicate average ability (25th to 75th percentile rank) 1 to 7 always indicate a weakness (1st to 16th percentile rank)

Age Equivalents (p. 295) Table A.9 in the Administration and Scoring Manual (pp. 337–340) provides age equivalents for all the subtests and some process scores (see left column p. 63 in text for discussion) No validity data are provided in any of the WISC–V manuals for age equivalents Recommend that age equivalents be used only in an informal manner

General Ability Index (GAI) (p. 292)
GAI is a measure of verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning. Composed of: Similarities Vocabulary Block Design Matrix Reasoning Figure Weights Note: Digit Span, Picture Span, Coding, and Symbol Search are NOT part of the GAI 122

Is the General Ability Index a Misnomer?
Definition of General Ability “a term that is used to describe the measurable ability believed to underlie skill in handling all types of intellectual tasks.” “Our general ability is the skill underlying all tasks.” From: psychologydictionary.org 123

Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) (p. 292)
CPI is a measure of working memory and processing speed. Composed of: Digit Span Picture Span Coding Symbol Search Note: Similarities, Vocabulary, Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, and Figure Weights are NOT part of the CPI 124

Is the Cognitive Proficiency Index a Misnomer? [1]
Definition of Cognitive “of or relating to the mental processes of perception, memory, judgment, and reasoning, as contrasted with emotional and volitional processes.” From: dictionary.com 125

Is the Cognitive Proficiency Index a Misnomer? [2]
Definition of Proficiency “a high degree of competence or skill; expertise” From: google.com 126

Diagnostic Utility of GAI and CPI (WISC–IV) [1]
Devena and Watkins (2012) reported the following: Study sample: 5 groups of children (hospital sample with ADHD = 78, nondiagnosed hospital sample = 66, school sample with ADHD = 196, school matched comparison sample = 196, simulated standardization sample = 2,200)

Devena and Watkins (2012) reported the following: (Cont.) A discrepancy analysis between the GAI and CPI was found to have “low accuracy in identifying children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.” (p. 133)

Source: Devena, S. E., & Watkins, M. W. (2012). Diagnostic utility of WISC–IV General Abilities Index and Cognitive Proficiency Index difference scores among children with ADHD. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 28(2), 133–154. doi: /

Predictive Ability of GAI vs FSIQ (WISC–IV) [1]
Rowe, Kingsley, and Thompson (2010) reported the following: Study sample = 88 children tested for gifted programming Both the FSIQ and GAI significantly predicted reading and math scores However, the FSIQ explained more of the variance than the GAI

Conclusion Working memory and verbal comprehension explained significant, unique variance in reading and math Processing speed and perceptual reasoning did not account for significant amounts of variance over and above working memory and verbal comprehension Working memory in the FSIQ was the main difference between FSIQ and GAI

Source: Rowe, E. W., Kingsley, J. M., & Thompson, D. F. (2010). Predictive ability of the General Ability Index (GAI) versus the Full Scale IQ among gifted referrals. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 119–128. doi: /a

FSIQ vs GAI in Intellectual Disability (WISC–IV) [1]
Koriakin et al. (2013) reported the following: Study sample: 543 males and 290 females GAI (N = 159) identified fewer children having intellectual disability than the FSIQ (N = 196) “The use of GAI for intellectual disability diagnostic decision-making may be of limited value.” (p. 840)

FSIQ vs GAI in Intellectual Disability (WISC–IV) [2]
Source: Koriakin, T. A., McCurdy, M. D., Papazoglou, A., Pritchard, A. E., Zabel, T. A., Mahone, E. M., & Jacobson, L. A. (2013). Classification of intellectual disability using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children: Full Scale IQ or General Abilities Index? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 55(9), doi: /dmcn.12201

Diagnostic Utility of the WISC-IV GAI > CPI Cognitive Score Profile [1]
SAMPLES N = 79 school-aged students with ASD (ages 6 to 16 years) N = 2200 standardized sample N = 216 school-aged children referred for evaluation with no diagnosis

Undiagnosed Group (N = 216)
Diagnostic Utility of the WISC-IV GAI > CPI Cognitive Score Profile[2] FINDINGS Index ASD (N = 79) Undiagnosed Group (N = 216) VCI 94 96 PRI 97 100 WMI 92 93 PSI 85 GAI 98 CPI 87 GAI-CPI 8.6 4.1 FSIQ 91 95

FINDINGS (Cont.) ASD sample had significantly lower CPI scores than the two controll groups GAI > CPI profile had low differential diagnostic accuracy 73% of ASD sample displayed GAI > CPI 61% of undiagnosed referred sample also displayed GAI > CPI profile

CONCLUSION The GAI > CPI profile was an inaccurate predictor of individual performance Source: Styck, K. M., Aman, M. S., & Watkins, M. W. (2018). Diagnostic utility of the WISC-IV GAI> CPI cognitive score profile for a referred sample of children and adolescents with autism. Contemporary School Psychology. Advanced online publication. doi: /s

Short Forms for Gifted Children
Two-subtest short form: SI + MR Four-subtest short form: SI + MR+ VC+ BD See for estimated FSIQs associated with these two short forms Source: Aubry, A., & Bourdin, B. (2018). Short forms of Wechsler scales assessing the intellectually gifted children using simulation data. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(830). doi: /fpsyg

WISC-V UK Factor Analysis [1]
PARTICIPANTS N = 415 FINDINGS g dominant source of subtest variance Group factors questionable CONCLUSION Results replicate independent factor analyses of Canadian, Spanish, French, UK, and USA versions of the WISC-V

WISC-V UK Factor Analysis [2]
Source: Canivez, G. L., Watkins, M. W., & McGill, R. J. (2018). Construct validity of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth UK Edition: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 16 primary and secondary subtests. British Journal of Educational Psychology. Advanced Online Publication. doi: /bjep.12230

Canadian WISC-V Norms Relevance [1]
Babcock et al. (2018) recommend that Canadian WISC-V norms be used in the assessment of children with special needs They found that “significant observable differences in the sensitivity of the norms in identifying case status” was present when the Canadian norms were not used

Canadian WISC-V Norms Relevance [2]
Source: Babcock, S. E., Miller, J. L., Saklofske, D. H., & Zhu, J. (2018). WISC-V Canadian norms: Relevance and use in the assessment of Canadian children. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 50(2), 97–104. doi: /cbs

Canadian WISC-V Factorial Validity [1]
Watkins et al. (2018) concluded from their research “that psychologists should focus their interpretive efforts at the general factor level and exercise extreme caution when using group factor scores to make decisions about individuals.”

Canadian WISC-V Factorial Validity [2]
Source: Watkins, M. W., Dombrowski, S. C., & Canivez, G. L. (2018) Reliability and factorial validity of the Canadian Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition, International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 6(4), 252–265. doi: /

Canadian WISC-V M FSIQ by Parent Education Level [1]
No high school or some high school, but no high school diploma 92.53 High school diploma or equivalent; some college without diploma: 93.73 College diploma or trade school certificate: 98.84 Undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate degrees: 107.24

WISC-V M FSIQ of Canadian Children by Ethnicity [2]
Asian 102.29 Caucasian 100.59 First Nations 95.07 Other 95.99

Canadian WISC-V M FSIQ by Parent Education Level and Ethnicity [3]
Babcock, S. E. (2017). Examining the Influence of Demographic Differences on Children's WISC-V Test Performance: A Canadian Perspective. Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository Available from

Canadian WISC-V Linguistic Demands for Oral Directions [1]
Cormier et al. (2016) concluded from their research that “the oral subtest directions of the WISC-V subtests Picture Span, Visual Puzzles, and Figure Weights demonstrate relatively high linguistic demand.”

Canadian WISC-V Linguistic Demands for Oral Directions [2]
Source: Cormier, D. C., Wang, K., Kennedy, K. E. (2016). Linguistic demands of the oral directions for administering the WISC-IV and WISC-V. Canadian Journal of School Psychology,31(4), 290–304. doi: /

Chapter 10 WISC-V subtests: pp

Chapter 11 Interpreting the WISC-V: pp

Relationship Between the WISC-V and WIAT-III[1]
PARTICIPANTS 181 children from the co-normed WISC–V and WIAT–III groups METHOD Various statistical models were studied

FINDINGS Comprehension-knowledge exerted direct effects on all reading and most writing skills Fluid reasoning exerted direct effects on essay writing and math skills Processing speed exerted direct effects on reading fluency, math fluency, and math calculation skills

FINDINGS (Cont.) Working memory significantly influenced most of the achievement skills and was particularly important for younger children (e.g., 6 to 9 years) The effect of g on all achievement skills was strong, but indirect through the broad abilities and often overlapped with the effect of fluid reasoning

CONCLUSION Children and adolescent's reading, math, and writing are differentially influenced by their cognitive abilities, and some of these effects vary by age

Relationship Between the WISC-V and WIAT-III [5]
Source: Caemmerer, J. M., Maddocks, D. L. S., Keith, T. Z., & Reynolds, M. R. (2018). Effects of cognitive abilities on child and youth academic achievement: Evidence from the WISC–V and WIAT–III. Intelligence, 68, 6–20. doi: /j.intell

Does Scatter Invalidate the Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)? [1]
YES When the Index scores are variable, the FSIQ is less valid—Fiorello et al. (2007) The construct validity of FSIQ is diminished when variability is present— Hale et al. (2007) Global IQs are rendered uniterpretable by significant variability among their parts— Flanagan & Kaufman (2004) 158

YES (Cont.) The FSIQ becomes contaminated with a high degree of differences among index scores—Groth-Marat (2009) 159

NO The FSIQ is a robust predictor of achievement for both regular and clinical samples, regardless of factor variability— Watkins, Glutting, & Lei (2007; see p in text) The FSIQ is equally valid at all levels of scatter—Daniel (2007) 160

NO (Cont.) In KABC-II, the general factor and broad abilities can be interpreted even when there is scatter—McGill (2016) The FSIQ is a valid predictor of academic achievement even in the presence of significant scatter—Freberg et al. (2008) WAIS-III scores are valid even when there is intersubtest scatter—Ryan et al. (2002) 161

NO (Cont.) "We believe that contemporary research argues against the assertion that marked index-level scatter renders the FSIQ invalid or uninterpretable”—Kaufman, Raiford, & Coalson (2016). In addition, data for the normative sample indicate that substantial index-level variability is normal, not abnormal. 162

References Daniel, M. H. (2007). ‘Scatter’ and the construct validity of FSIQ: Comment on Fiorello et al. (2007). Applied Neuropsychology, 14(4), 291–295 Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., Holdnack, J. A., Kavanagh, J. A., Terrell , J., & Long, L. (2007). Interpreting intelligence test results for children with disabilities: Is global intelligence relevant? Applied Neuropsychology, 14(1), 2–12. doi: / 163

References Flanagan, D. P., & Kaufman, A. S. (2004). Essentials of WISC–IV assessment. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Freberg, M. E., Vandiver, B. J., Watkins, M. W., & Canivez, G. L. (2008). Significant factor score variability and the validity of the WISC–III Full Scale IQ in predicting later academic achievement. Applied Neuropsychology, 15(2), 131–139. doi: / Groth-Marat, G. (2009). Handbook of psychological assessment (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 164

References Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2001). Beyond the academic rhetoric of ‘g’: Intelligence testing guidelines for practitioners. The School Psychologist, 55(4), 113–139. Hale, J. B., Fiorello, C. A., Kavanagh, J. A., Holdnack, J. A., & Aloe, A. M. (2007). Is the demise of IQ interpretation justified? A response to special issue authors. Applied Neuropsychology, 14(1), 37–51. doi: / 165

References Kaufman, A. S., Raiford, S. E., & Coalson, D. L. (2016). Intelligent testing with the WISC-V. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. McGill, R. J., (2016). Invalidating the Full Scale IQ score in the presence of significant factor score variability: Clinical acumen or clinical illusion? Archives of Assessment Psychology, 6(1), 49–79. Watkins, M. W., Glutting, J. J., & Lei, P. W. (2007). Validity of the full-scale IQ when there is a significant variability among WISC–III and WISC–IV factor scores. Applied Neuropsychology, 14(1), 13–20. 166

References Ryan, J. J., Kreiner, D. S., & Burton, D. B. (2002). Does high scatter affect the predictive validity of WAIS-III IQs? Applied Neuropsychology, 9(3), 173–178. 167

Subtest Substitution in the WISC–V [1] (p. 325)
Only substitute a subtest if absolutely necessary When you substitute, Psychometric properties of the FSIQ may change Reliabilities and validities of the FSIQ may change Confidence intervals of the FSIQ may change 168

Subtest Substitution in the WISC–V [2] (p. 325)
When you substitute, (Cont.) No empirical data for substitutions No empirical data for number of substitutions Follow the subtest substitution guidelines on p. 93 169

Substitution, Proration, and Retest on the WPPSI–IV [1]
Zhu et al. (2016) using the standardization data reported that substituting, prorating, and retesting resulted in An increase of the FSIQ SEM by .61 to 1.92 points, a 20% to 64% increase Wider confidence intervals by 1.2 to 3.8 IQ points Misclassifications as high as 22% Conclusion: Substitution, proration, or retesting introduces additional measurement error

Source: Zhu, J., Cayton, T. G., & Chen, H. (2016). Substitution, proration, or a retest? The optimal strategy when standard administration of the WPPSI–IV is infeasible. Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication. doi: /pas

Source: Original paper was given at the American Psychological Association, July 2013 in Honolulu, HI (Zhu and Cayton, 2013; reference in text)

Potential Problems in Administering the WISC–V[1]
McDermott et al. (2014; not in text) pointed out that: Compromised administration and scoring is not unique to cognitive tests It is endemic to psychological assessment in general and affects a broad collection of measuring devices Characteristics of the evaluator, examinee, or evaluator–examinee relationship also affect test results

Potential Problems in Administering the WISC–V [2]
McDermott et al. (2014) pointed out that: (Cont.) Terman (1918) said that “there are innumerable sources of error in giving and scoring mental tests of whatever kind” (p. 33)

Potential Problems in Administering the WISC–V [3]
Sources: McDermott, P. A., Watkins, M. W., & Rhoad, A. M. (2014). Whose IQ is it? Assessor bias variance in high-stakes psychological assessment. Psychological Assessment, 26(1), 207–214. doi: /a Terman, L. M. (1918). Errors in scoring Binet tests. Psychological Clinic, 12, 33–39.

Strengths of WISC–V (p. 332)
Excellent standardization Good overall psychometric properties Useful diagnostic information Good administration procedures Good manuals and interesting test materials Helpful scoring criteria Usefulness for children with some disabilities

Limitations of WISC–V [1] (pp. 332–333)
Limited breadth of coverage of the FSIQ Failure to provide conversion tables when substitutions are made Failure to provide a psychometric basis for requiring raw scores of 1 in order to compute FSIQ Limited range of scores for extremely low or high functioning children

Limitations of WISC–V [2] (pp. 332–333)
Limited criterion validity studies Possible difficulties in scoring responses Somewhat large practice effects Occasional confusing guidelines Poor quality of some test materials

How Am I Going to Score These?
Biology question: List three examples of marine life Answer: Marching, Barracks inspection, running the obstacle course 179

Question: What does imitate mean? Answer: What does imitate mean? Question: What would you do if you were lost in the woods? Answer: I’d use my cell phone, pager, or my global positioning satellite device. 180

Question: How do you change centimeters to meters? Answer: Take out centi 181

Reflections on Intelligence and Childhood
“Too often we give children answers to remember rather than problems to solve.” —Roger Lewin

Chapters 12, 13, & 14 CHAPTER 12 Description of WPPSI-IV: pp. 439-483
WPPSI-IV subtests: pp CHAPTER 14 Interpreting the WPPSI-IV: pp

Gender Differences on the WPPSI-IV [1]
SAMPLE N = Entire standardization group

Ages 2-6 to 3-11 Index Female Male Comprehension-Knowledge 103 97* Visual Processing 101 Short-term Memory 102 FSIQ

Ages 4-0 to 7-7 Index Female Male Comprehension-Knowledge 101 99 Visual Processing 100 Fluid Reasoning Short-term Memory 99* Processing Speed 102 98* FSIQ 100*

Source: Palejwala, M. H., & Fine, J. G., (2015). Gender differences in latent cognitive abilities in children aged 2 to 7. Intelligence, 48, 96–108. doi: /j.intell

Chapters 15, 16, & 17 CHAPTER 15 SB5: pp. 557-596 CHAPTER 16
DAS-II: pp CHAPTER 17 WJ IV COG: pp

Chapter 18 Report writing: pp. 705-750
Preparing to write a report: Table (pp ) 22 principles of report writing summarized: p. 749

Resource Guide [1] Appendix A: Tables for WISC-V (p. 1)
Appendix B: Tables for WPPSI-IV (p. 53) Appendix C: Tables for WISC-V and WPPSI-IV (p. 103) Appendix D: Tables for SB5 (p. 139) Appendix E: Tables for DAS-II and WJ IV COG (p. 155)

Resource Guide [2] Appendix F: Miscellaneous Tables (p. 191)
Appendix G: IDEA 2004, Section 504, and ADA (p. 205) Appendix H: Challenges of Being an Expert Witness (p. 227) Appendix I: Assessment of Intelligence with Specialized Measures (p. 245)

Resource Guide [3] Appendix J: Assessment of Academic Achievement (p. 271) Appendix K: Assessment of Receptive and Expressive Language (p. 297)

Children with Special Needs
Session 3 Children with Special Needs

Special Group Studies with WISC– V (pp. 307–308)
13 special groups compared across the primary index scales (Table 9-8; p. 307) VCI VSI FRI WMI PSI

Key Symptom Considerations
Assessment of ADHD [1] Key Symptom Considerations Presence of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity Number, type, severity, and duration of symptoms Situations in which symptoms are displayed Verbal abilities, nonverbal abilities, short- and long-term memory abilities, and other cognitive abilities

Key Symptom Considerations (Cont.)
Assessment of ADHD [2] Key Symptom Considerations (Cont.) Presence of one or more comorbid disorders Oppositional defiant disorder (about 40% to 50%) Conduct disorder (about 25%) Disruptive mood dysregulation (majority of children) Specific learning disorder (50% or more) Anxiety disorder (about 30%)

Assessment of ADHD [3] Key Symptom Considerations (Cont.) Presence of one or more comorbid disorders Depressive disorder (about 20%) Substance use disorder (minority of children) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (minority of children) Autism spectrum disorder (minority of children)

Assessment of ADHD [4] Key Symptom Considerations (Cont.) Social competence and adaptive behavior Educational and instructional needs

Assessment of ADHD [5] Assessment Areas Comprehensive history
Review of child’s cumulative school records Attendance history Reports of behavioral problems School grades Standardized test scores Number of schools attended Review medical information

Assessment Areas (Cont.)
Assessment of ADHD [6] Assessment Areas (Cont.) Review previous psychological evaluations Interviews with parents, teachers, and child Observe child’s behavior in classroom and playground Administer rating scales to parents, teachers, and child (if possible) Administer battery of psychological tests to child

Assessment of ADHD [7] Source: Sattler, J. M. (2014). Foundations of behavioral, social, and clinical assessment of children (6th Ed.). San Diego, CA: Author.

Intelligence and ADHD [1]
PARTICIPANTS N = 2,221 (Ages 10 to 12 years who were in a Dutch cohort study) FINDINGS Fewer attention problems with higher IQs (130+) Attention problems predicted functional impairment at school throughout the IQ range

FINDINGS (Cont.) Hyperactivity/impulsivity problems only minimally predicted functional impairment at school CONCLUSIONS Both types of ADHD symptoms-externalizing and internalizing problems- were lower at higher IQ levels

CONCLUSIONS (Cont.) Attention problems in highly intelligent children are a reason for clinical concern Source: Rommelse, N., Antshel, K., Smeets, S., Greven, C., Hoogeveen, L., Faraone, S. V., & Hartman, C. A. (2017). High intelligence and the risk of ADHD and other psychopathology. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 211(6), 359–364. doi: /bjp.bp

Working Memory and ADHD [1]
PARTICIPANTS N = 160 (8-year-old children; 75% male and 25% female) 54% met the DSM-5 criteria for ADHD WISC-IV and WIAT-2 administered FINDINGS Working memory but not ADHD symptoms severity significantly contributed to measures of academic achievement

FINDINGS (Cont.) Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, but not working memory, were significantly associated with teacher ratings of behavioral functioning and clinician-ratings of global functioning

CONCLUSION Working memory in children may be uniquely related to academic functioning, but not necessarily to behavioral functioning

Source: Simone, A. N., Marks, D. J., Bédard, A., & Halperi, J. M. (2018). Low working memory rather than ADHD symptoms predicts poor academic achievement in school-aged children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(2), 277–290. doi: /s

Working Memory and ADHD Behaviors [1]
PARTICIPANTS N = 50 male children ages 6 to 12 years SCORES Conners-3P parent report, WISC-IV AR, DSB, and WMI FINDINGS Arithmetic and Digit Span Backward most consistently related to inattentive behaviors

FINDINGS (Cont.) Working memory was not consistently related to hyperactive/impulsive behavior Neither the WMI nor the Arithmetic subtest correctly classified children diagnosed with ADHD

CONCLUSION Working memory is associated with inattentive behaviors but should not be used to classify ADHD

Source: Colbert, A. M., & Bo, J. (2017). Evaluating relationships among clinical working memory assessment and inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviors in a community sample of children. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 66, 34–43. doi: /j.ridd

Specific Learning Disability and DSM-5 [1]
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA A. Difficulties Difficulty reading words Phonological awareness Rapid naming Phonological memory Difficulty understanding what is read Oral language (e.g., vocabulary) Listening comprehension Working memory Executive functioning

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA A. Difficulties (Cont.) Difficulty with spelling Phonological processing Orthographic processing/coding Motor skills Difficulty with writing Working memory Attention Executive functioning Language

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA A. Difficulties (Cont.) Difficulty understanding number Number representation Number comparison Difficulty with mathematical reasoning Long-term retrieval Rapid naming Processing speed Working memory

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA A. Difficulties (Cont.) Difficulty with mathematical reasoning (Cont.) Visual-spatial ability Attention Executive functioning

“B. The affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below those expected for the individual’s chronological age, and cause significant interference with academic or occupational performance, or with activities of daily living, as confirmed by individually administered standardized achievement measures and comprehensive clinical assessment.” (p. 67)

“C. The learning difficulties begin during school-age years but may not become fully manifest until the demands for those affected academic skills exceed the individual’s limited capacities ….” (p. 67)

“D. The learning difficulties are not better accounted for by intellectual disabilities, uncorrected visual or auditory acuity, or other mental or neurological disorders, psychosocial adversity, lack of proficiency in the language of academic instruction, or inadequate educational instruction.” (p. 67)

Reasons for Poor Performance of Children with Readings Disorders [1]
Problem areas Attention and concentration Phonological awareness (knowledge of sounds) Orthographic awareness (knowledge of spelling conventions in a language) Word awareness (knowledge of words) Semantic awareness (knowledge of meaning in language)

Reasons for Poor Performance With Children with Readings Disorders [2]
Problem areas (Cont.) Syntactic awareness (knowledge of structural and grammatical aspects of language) Rapid decoding (ability to recognize the basic sounds (phonemes) and meanings of words ) ) Rapid naming (ability to name symbols, words, or pictures rapidly) Verbal comprehension Pragmatic awareness (knowledge of rules and conventions for appropriate language use)

Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) [1]
Review of Literature Norton and Wolf (2012) reviewed the literature on RAN and reading fluency. Their conclusions: RAN provides an index of ability to integrate multiple neural processes RAN and phonological awareness are both robust early predictors of reading ability, and one or both are often impaired in cases of dyslexia

Fluent reading can be conceptualized as a complex ability that depends on automaticity across all levels of cognitive and linguistic processing involved in reading, allowing the individual time and thought to be devoted to comprehension WISC-V Naming Speed Literacy and Naming Speed Quantity serve as measures of RAN

Successful intervention depends on accurate assessment of both accuracy and speed across all levels of reading Best interventions involve multicomponential programs that target phonology and multiple levels of language, including:

Best interventions: (Cont.) Orthography—study of letters and spelling of words Morphology—study of how words are formed Syntax—study how words are ordered to form logical, meaningful sentences Semantics—study of the meaning and interpretation of words

Example of Research Willburger et al. (2008) reported the following: Sample size: N = 267 children Children with dyslexia had a deficit in rapid naming of digits, letters, and pictured objects Children with dyscalculia had a deficit in rapid naming of quantities Children with both dyslexia and dyscalculia had deficits in both rapid naming of items and rapid naming of quantities

Sources: Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and Reading Fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review Psychology, 63, 427–452. doi: /annurev-psych

Willburger, E., Fussenegger, B., Moll, K., Wood, G., & Landerl, K. (2008). Naming speed in dyslexia and dyscalculia. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(2), 224–236. doi: /j.lindif

Comment on SLD [1] Academic underachievement is a key characteristic usually shared by children with SLD Language-based dysfunctions underlie many children with SLD Important to compare Decoding vs comprehension Oral vs written skills Abilities in different subject areas

Comment on SLD [2] Reading disability most frequent SLD
Examine patterns of cognitive and linguistic functioning Don’t rely on somewhat arbitrary cutoff scores Use child’s unique pattern of abilities and other assessment results to serve as the foundation for developing interventions

Comment on SLD [3] Important to evaluate Cognitive-academic deficits
Information-processing and executive functioning deficits Perceptual deficits Social-behavioral deficits

SLD and English Language Learners (ELL) [1]
Assessment Considerations Experiential background. Consider their: Length of residence in their new country Quality of instruction in school School attendance record Health history Family history

Assessment Considerations (Cont.)
SLD and ELL [2] Assessment Considerations (Cont.) Language ability of peers. Compare their language abilities with peers with similar Linguistic/cultural backgrounds Exposure to second language instruction

SLD and ELL [3] Assessment Considerations (Cont.) Language ability of siblings. Compare their language abilities with those of their siblings when they were of the same age Typical difficulties in learning a second language. Compare their learning difficulties with those of other English language learners

SLD and ELL [4] Assessment Considerations (Cont.) Linguistic proficiency. Compare their linguistic proficiency in their primary language and in English Appropriate assessment battery Standardized tests Checklists Language samples (written compositions) Interviews

SLD and ELL [5] Assessment Considerations (Cont.) Appropriate assessment battery (Cont.) Questionnaires Observations Portfolios Journals Work samples Curriculum-based measures Language-reduced measures

Assessment of Developmental Disabilities [1]
Areas to Consider Use of eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and vocalizations. Are these behaviors well coordinated or not?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Interactions with others. Does child … show objects to others, share his or her interests with them, or try to involve them in activities? point to or show things to others? point only when he or she asks for something? express his or her enjoyment in activities by smiling when looking at others?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Interactions with you. Does child interact in a reciprocal manner with you? Do you have to initiate social interactions with child, or does child try to involve you in some way? How does child respond when you make a social overture or try to play with him or her?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Interactions with you. (Cont.) What is the quality of your rapport with child? Use of language. Is child’s use of language age-appropriate? Is there anything odd about his or her language use?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Use of language. (Cont.) Can you have a back-and-forth conversation with child? What is the quality of child’s speech and intonation?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Play. Is child’s play appropriate? Does child get stuck on particular toys or repetitively manipulate toys? Does child pretend or make up stories when he or she is playing with dolls or action figures? Does child become overly focused on parts or aspects of toys?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Play. (Cont.) Does child insist on certain ways of playing with toys? Motor behavior. Does child have any peculiar motor mannerisms, like repeated hand flapping or other obviously odd or repetitive movements of the body?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Transitions. Does child have difficulty when it is time to move to a new location or start a new activity, even when these transitions are planned? Is it possible to redirect child to a new toy or activity?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Attention and activity level. Does child have attention difficulties? Is child hyperactive? Does child appear to be driven or apathetic? Is it difficult to get child to respond to your requests?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Awareness of social cues and expectations. How does child respond to your greeting and to your parting words? Does child sit close to you or far away from you? Does child look away from you or face you?

Areas to Consider (Cont.) Awareness of social cues and expectations. (Cont.) Does child talk to you about his or her experiences, feelings, and relationships with other people?

Autism Spectrum Disorder [1]
Examples of Assessment Instruments Ages and Stages Questionnaires–Third Edition (ASQ–3; Squires & Bricker, 2009; Brookes) Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers–Revised with Follow-Up (M-CHAT–R/F; Robins, Fein, & Barton, 2009;

Examples of Assessment Instruments (Cont.) Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales (CSBS; Wetherby & Prizant, 2001; Brookes) Childhood Autism Rating Scale–Second Edition (CARS–2; Scholper, Van Bourgondien, Wellman, & Love, 2010; Pearson)

Examples of Assessment Instruments (Cont.) Screening Tool for Autism in Toddlers and Young Children (STAT; Stone & Ousley, 2008; Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule–Second Edition (ADOS–2; Lord et al., 2012; Western Psychological Services)

Examples of Assessment Instruments (Cont.) The Autism Diagnostic Interview–Revised (ADI–R; Rutter, LeCouteur, & Lord, 2003; Western Psychological Services)

Prevalence Rate of ASD in US [1]
N = 325,483 representing 8% of the population of 8 years old who total 4,119,668 Year Prevalence 2000 1 in 150 2004 1 in 125 2006 1 in 110 2008 1 in 88 2010 1 in 68 2014 1 in 59

Prevalence rate increased from 2000 to 2014 by about 2.5 times Males were four times more likely than females to be identified with ASD

Prevalence Rate of ASD and IQ Level IQ Level % < 70 31% 71-85 25% > 85 44%

Source: Baio, J. et al. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years–Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 sites in the United States, MMWR Surveillance Summary, 67(6), 1–23. doi: /mmwr.ss6706a1

Verbal and Nonverbal IQ Test Scores in Children with ASD [1]
SAMPLES N = 80 children with ASD (68 boys and 12 girls ages 4 to 14 years) Administered SB5 and Leiter-R RESULTS SB5 FSIQ = 69 (range 40 to 116) Leiter-R Brief IQ = 78 (range 36 to 119) Difference 9 points in favor of Leiter-R

CONCLUSION Results from verbal and nonverbal IQ tests may not be interchangeable, especially when evaluating children with ASD or children with language problems

Source: Grondhuis, S. N., Lecavalier, L., Arnold, L. E., Handen, B. L., Scahill, L., McDougle, C. J., & Aman, M. G. (2018). Differences in verbal and nonverbal IQ test scores in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 49, 47–55. doi: /j.rasd

WISC-V VCI vs. VECI for Children with ASD [1]
SAMPLE N = 48 children with ASD (ages 8-3 to ; M = 12-0 years)

WISC-VCI vs. VECI for Children with ASD [2]
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Verbal (Expanded Crystalized) Index (VECI): Similarities, Vocabulary, Information, and Comprehension is a preferred index over the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI): Similarities and Vocabulary Comprehension is important to assess in cases of ASD because children have expressive and receptive language deficits

WISC-V VCI vc.VECI for Children with ASD [3]
Source: Kuehnel, C. A., Castro, R., & Furey, W. M. (2018). A comparison of WISC–IV and WISC–V verbal comprehension index scores for children with autism spectrum disorder. Clinical Neuropsychologist. Advanced online publication. doi: /

Intelligence and DSM-5 Severity Ratings of ASD [1]
SAMPLE N = 248 children (ages 2 to 17; M = 6.4 years)

FINDINGS More problematic restricted and repetitive behaviors and more problemeatic social communication ratings were associated with the following: Younger age Lower IQs (various intelligence tests) Higher Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-2 scores

FINDINGS (Cont.) FSIQ = 91 in the least impaired group FSIQ = 55 in the most impaired group CONCLUSION The strong association between IQ and DSM-5 severity ratings in both domains (social communication and restricted and repetitive behavior) suggests that clinicians may be including cognitive functioning in their ratings

Source: Mazurek, M. O., Lu, F., Macklin, E. A., & Handen, B. L. (2018). Factors associated with DSM-5 severity level ratings for autism spectrum disorder. Autism. Advanced online publication. doi: /

Adaptive Behavior Trajectories in Children with ASD [1]
SAMPLE N = 168 children (ages 1 to 33; M = 10 years) RESULTS Initial increase in adaptive behavior during early childhood Adaptive behavior reached a plateau during adolescence for individuals with ASD at all IQ levels

Adaptive Behavior Trajectories in Children with ASD [2]
Source: Meyer, A. T., Powell, P. S., Butera, N., Klinger, M. R., & Klinger, L. G. (2018). Brief report: Developmental trajectories of adaptive behavior in children and adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder, 48(8), 2870– doi: /s

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

TBI [1] Research on the epidemiology of traumatic brain injuries among children and youth aged 0 to 20 years. in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand shows the following: 691 per 100,000 population treated in emergency departments 74 per 100,000 treated in hospitals 9 per 100,000 resulting in death

TBI [2] Males have a higher risk of injury than females:
1.4 times higher among those younger than 10 years 2.2 times among those older than 10 years Leading cause of brain injury among children aged less than 5 years is falls aged 15 years and older is motor vehicle accidents

TBI [3] Other causes of brain injury: Physical abuse
Recreational accidents

TBI [4] Thurman, D. J., & Ryan, N. (2016). The epidemiology of traumatic brain Injury in children and youths: A review of research since Journal of Child Neurology, 31(1), doi: /

TBI [5] In the U.S., approximately 75% of TBIs are mild
Still, TBI accounts for 30.5% of all injury-related deaths among children

Observable Effects of TBI in Children [1]
TBI may produce physical, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms Contact health care provider if a child shows any of these symptoms after sustaining a head injury because brain injury can result in an intracranial hemorrhage, which is life-threatening Changes in play Changes in school performance Changes in sleep patterns

Contact health care provider if any of these symptoms show after a child sustains a head injury (Cont.) Convulsions or seizures Persistent headaches Inability to recognize people or places Irritability, crankiness, or crying more than usual

Contact health care provider if any of these symptoms show after a child sustains a head injury (Cont.) Lack of interest in favorite toys or activities Loss of balance or unsteady walking Loss of consciousness Loss of newly acquired skills

Contact health care provider if any of these symptoms show after a child sustains a head injury (Cont.) Poor attention Refusal to eat or nurse (for infants) Slurred speech Tiredness or listlessness Vomiting Weakness, numbness, or decreased coordination

Effects of TBI Are Related to Several Factors
Location, extent, and type of brain injury Child’s age Child’s preinjury status Temperament Personality Cognitive and psychosocial functioning Type, promptness, and quality of treatment

School Problems in Children After Concussions [1]
Study Sample N = 349 students and parents sampled four weeks post-injury Ages 5 to 18 years Sample divided into two groups: Continuing to experience problems following head injuries Fully recovered

Results Severity of concussion symptoms directly related to degree of academic problems among all grade levels 88% not fully recovered still had problems with Concentration Headaches Fatigue

Results (Cont.) 77% of those not fully recovered also had problems Taking notes Doing homework (needing more time) Studying for exams

Summary and Recommendations School professionals need to monitor children with symptoms of concussion because their school work is compromised School systems and medical professionals need to work together to support students in the recovery phase

Summary and Recommendations (Cont.) High school students have more learning problems than middle or elementary school children Supports are particularly necessary for older students because they face greater academic demands than their younger peers

Source Ransom, D. M., Vaughan, C. G., Pratson, L., Sady, M. D., McGill, C. A., & Gioia, G. A. (2015). Academic effects of concussion in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 135(6), 1043–1050. doi: /peds

Sports-Related Concussions [1]
About 40 to 50 million children in U.S. participate in organized sports

Incidence of mild TBI in children who participate in sports is high—about 1,275,000 annually American Football (22.6%) Bicycling (11.6%) Basketball (9.2%) Soccer (7.7%) Snow skiing (6.4%)

Rates of Concussion Highest in full-contact sports (e.g., football, boy’s lacrosse, ice hockey, rugby) Moderate in moderate-contact sports (e.g., basketball, soccer) Lowest in minimal contact sports (e.g., volleyball, baseball, softball)

Consider the cumulative effects of sports-related concussions Possibility of long-term permanent damage in the form of chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Assessment of Sport-Related Concussions [1]
Use Child SCAT5 SPORT CONCUSSION ASSESSMENT TOOL — 5TH EDITION (ages 5 to 12 years) Search in Google “SPORT CONCUSSION ASSESSMENT TOOL — 5TH EDITION (ages 5 to 12 years)” Then, click on Sport concussion assessment tool for childrens ages 5 to 12 years

Immediate or On-field Assessment
SCAT5 (5-12 yrs) [1] Immediate or On-field Assessment Step 1: Red Flags Neck pain or tenderness Double vision Weakness or tingling/ burning in arms or legs Severe or increasing headache Seizure or convulsion Loss of consciousness Deteriorating conscious state Vomiting Increasingly restless, agitated or combative

Immediate or On-field Assessment (Cont.)
SCAT5 (5-12 yrs) [2] Immediate or On-field Assessment (Cont.) Step 2: Observable signs Lying motionless on the playing surface Balance/gait difficulties/motor incoordination: stumbling, slow/laboured movements Disorientation or confusion, or an inability to respond appropriately to questions Blank or vacant look Facial injury after head trauma

SCAT5 (5-12 yrs) [3] Immediate or On-field Assessment (Cont.)
Step 3: Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) Office or Off-field Assessment Step 1: Athlete Background Step 2: Symptom Evaluation Step 3: Cognitive Screening Immediate Memory Concentration: Digits Backwards, Days in Reverse Order

Office or Off-field Assessment (Cont.)
SCAT5 (5-12 yrs) [4] Office or Off-field Assessment (Cont.) Step 4: Neurological Screen Step 5: Delayed Recall (remember words read earlier) Step 6: Decision (summary)

Assessment of Sport-Related Concussions [2]
Use SCAT5 SPORT CONCUSSION ASSESSMENT TOOL — 5TH EDITION (age 13 years and over) Search in Google: “Preseason SCAT5 baseline testing can be useful for” Then, click on SCAT5 - British Journal of Sports Medicine

Sports-Related Concussions Research [1]
Study Alosco et al. (2018) at the Boston Un. School of Medicine conducted telephone interviews with family and friends of 246 deceased football players

Findings Football players, who as children began tackle football before the age of 12 years, experienced symptoms an average of 13 years earlier than those who started playing after the age of 11 years

Findings (Cont.) Symptoms were associated with cognitive, behavioral, and mood changes comparable to those seen in children exposed to neurotoxins (e.g., lead) during critical periods of neurodevelopment.

Findings (Cont.) Examples of cognitive problems were problems in attention, memory, executive function, language, and visuospatial functioning Examples of behavioral/mood problems were apathy, depression, mania, anxiety and related disorders (e.g., obsessive compulsive disorder), and impulse control and aggression

Findings (Cont.) These symptoms may lead to more severe long-term neurological effects. Source Alosco, M. L., et al. (2018). Age of first exposure to tackle football and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Annals of Neurology, 83, 886–901. doi: /ana.25245

Educating Children Who Are Gifted

General Content of Instructional Programs [1]
Focus on cognitively and affectively complex programs Emphasize critical-thinking skills Creative-thinking skills Research methodology skills Problem-solving skills Decision-making skills Leadership skills

Give opportunities to engage in activities stressing Divergent production Talking to intellectual peers Understanding human value systems Seeing interrelationships among bodies of knowledge Studying subjects in their areas of strength and interest

Give opportunities to engage in activities stressing (Cont.) Studying new areas Applying their abilities to problems in the world of work and in the community Examples of Programs 1. General classroom enrichment 2. Differentiated classroom instruction 3. Accelerated curriculum

Examples of Programs (Cont.) 4. Radical acceleration 5. Curriculum compacting 6. Self-designed or independent study courses and other enrichment opportunities 7. Pull-out groups 8. Subject acceleration 9. Grade telescoping 10. Receiving credit by examinations

Examples of Programs (Cont.) 11. Grade skipping 12. Early admission 13. Honors classes 14. Magnet schools 15. Advanced placement (AP) programs 16. Internship, apprenticeship, or mentorship programs 17. Concurrent enrollment 18. International baccalaureate

Cautions Children who are gifted may experience frustration and disappointment if they receive inappropriate placements. A special placement should not be made without the approval of child, child’s family, and teacher. Child and family should be apprised of the nature of the special placement and why it is recommended.

Cautions (Cont.) Keeping children who are gifted in regular classes with an unmodified curriculum may be acceptable if children are not bored and can work on individual projects or do other activities to enhance their skills. We are doing a disservice to children who are gifted if we let them become bored and turned off by an unchallenging curriculum.

Cautions (Cont.) The simplest way to educate academically advanced children is to place them in existing classes at more advanced grade levels, based on the principle of placement according to competence (Robinson, 1980).

Source: Robinson, H. B. (1980, November). A case for radical acceleration: Programs of the Johns Hopkins University and the University of Washington. Paper presented at the meeting of the 1980 Symposium of the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth, Baltimore.

Session 4 Expert Witness

Cross-Examination Topics (RG pp. 237-238) [1]
The facts on which your opinions and conclusions were based The degree of confidence you have in each of your opinions The precise nature of any disagreements with the cross-examining attorney’s expert witnesses

Whether there is more than one school of thought in the community of experts and, if so, whether you will admit that there is a substantial body of thought that supports the position of the cross-examining attorney’s expert witnesses What documents you reviewed while you were preparing to testify, including personal notes

How you used these documents to form your opinion Whether you know of any relevant documents that were not given to the cross-examining attorney Whether there are other documents related to the subject of your testimony that you did not review Any limitations in your qualifications and experience

Any limitations or lack of confidence about the credibility of your opinions or assumptions about the case Any limitations in your assessment results Inconsistencies in your testimony (elicited, in part, by comparing your present testimony with a position that you previously advocated)

Any sources of bias in your testimony Your incentives for testing: “You’re a hired gun.” Your choice of assessment procedures: “Isn’t it true that you used an American-normed test, which is culturally biased?” Your character and past behaviors: “Isn’t it true that you have received four speeding tickets?”

Your testimony: “What you are saying now is not what you said during the deposition. Why is that?” Your publications: “Some of your publications are in nonrefereed journals. What good are they?” Your lack of knowledge about the subject matter under dispute: “Isn’t it true that on page 17 of his book Children’s Testimony, Smith says that children are not reliable informants?”

Your testimony: “What you are saying now is not what you said during the deposition. Why is that?” Your publications: “Some of your publications are in nonrefereed journals. What good are they?” Your recommendations: “How can you be sure that child should be placed in a public school classroom for children with learning disabilities rather than in a private school?

Expert Witness: Recommendations (p. 242) [1]
Try to customize your testimony so that it will be clearly understood by the jurors Remember that you are providing answers primarily to the jury and not to the attorney asking the questions To make your testimony most effective, identify which aspects of your findings are most critical to your formulation of the case

Before you include any test results, make sure that the psychological tests that you have administered are highly reliable and valid for the relevant population and have been administered and scored properly Emphasize the range and breadth of your education and clinical training needed to become a licensed psychologist

After you complete your testimony, ask yourself whether you protected the truth of your opinion from any manipulation by either attorney

Spelling Chequer [1] Eye halve a spelling chequer
It came with my pea sea It plainly marques four my revue Miss steaks eye kin knot sea. Eye strike a key and type a word And weight four it two say Weather eye am wrong oar write It shows me strait a weigh.

Spelling Chequer [2] As soon as a mist ache is maid
It nose bee fore two long And eye can put the error rite Its rare lea ever wrong. Eye have run this poem threw it I am shore your pleased two no Its letter perfect awl the weigh My chequer tolled me sew.

Reflections on Development
The Little Boy and the Old Man Said the little boy, "Sometimes I drop my spoon." Said the old man, "I do that too." The little boy whispered, "I wet my pants." I do that too," laughed the little old man. Said the little boy, "I often cry." The old man nodded, "So do I." But worst of all," said the boy, "it seems Grown-ups don't pay attention to me." And he felt the warmth of a wrinkled old hand. I know what you mean," said the little old man.” ― Shel Silverstein

ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN: COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS, 6th ED

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ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN: COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS AND APPLICATIONS, 6th ED

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