1. Presented by M.A. Student Rana Sameer Abdulrahman
Reference and deixis
Presented by
M.A. Student
Rana Sameer Abdulrahman

2. Overview Reference 1.2 Types of reference 2. Deixis
Definite reference
Indefinite reference
Generic reference
Non-referential uses of referring expressions
2. Deixis
2.1 Types of deixis
Person deixis
2.1.2 Spatial deixis
2.1.3 Temporal deixis
2.1.4 Social deixis
2.1.5 Discourse deixis

3. Reference
Reference: is one of the most fundamental and vital aspects of language and language use, i.e. the relations between language, as a medium of communication among human beings, and the world, about which we communicate. Reference is concerned with designating entities in the world by linguistic means. For example, the word chair

4. The nature of reference: reference is not an inherent property of expressions, but is a speech act as Searle's position(1969) . For example, Donald Trump is the president of USA.
There are two common uses of the word reference:
1. It has a meaning in some specific occasion to refer to, e.g. Donald Trump will visit China
2. To say that dog refers to the class of dogs, and that the reference of dog is the class of dogs.( this is contrary to our usage). Lyons(1968) says that dog denotes the class of dogs.

5. Types of reference
1.2.1 Definite reference: it is the prototypical type of reference, and the most crucial for the functioning of language. For example: The man gave it to her. The man= the referential target

6. 1.2.1.1 Types of definite referring expression:
a. Noun phrase with definite determiners: the book, this book, that book, his book, our book, etc.
b. Personal pronouns: I, you, she, he, it, us, they.
c. Proper names: Tom, Mary, Paris.
d. Certain locative adverbs: here, there, yonder.
e. Certain temporal adverbs: now, then, yesterday, next month.
Definiteness may present in unexpected places:
Mary's watching. ( latent direct object recovered from the context)
Mary's reading.
Mary is watching; so is Sue.
John is reading; so is Bill. (reading is an autonomous activity)

7. 1. 2. 1. 2 Definite descriptions (noun phrases with definite article)
Definite descriptions (noun phrases with definite article). For example,
1. Have you seen Crime and Punishment? ( the movie).
2. No, but I've read the book. ( class of books).
Proper names: there are two diametrically opposed
extreme positions with regard to proper names:
The proper name has extension, but no intension, as in:
Tom ( has no semantic content, but an individual referent), but
The dog ( has its semantic meaning which refers to canines),it has its intention.

8. b. Proper names function as abbreviated descriptions, that is, they stand for the sum of the properties that distinguish the bearer from all other referents, i.e. they get their meaning by association, not with generic concepts: It's a dog entails It's an animal (a consequence of the properties of the concepts DOG and ANIMAL It's Alan entails It's a man (the relation between the individual concept ALAN CRUSE and the generic concept MAN).

9. 1.2.2 Indefinite reference A man gave it to her (the identity of the referent is not germane to the message: that is, nothing hinges on the individual features of the referent, only the class features indicated are presented as relevant. Another example: 1. How did he get the door to open? 2. He said a word. (specific/nonspecific distinction in indefinites)

10. 1.2.3 Generic reference: reference to a class of referents, for example:
The tiger is a friendly beast.
A tiger is a friendly beast.
Tigers are friendly beasts.
None of them is inconsistent with minor exceptions, but all of them are inconsistent with the existence of a significant subclass of unfriendly tigers, for example
1.a. The tiger, with few exceptions, is a friendly beast.
b.? The tiger is a friendly beast, although there are many that are not friendly.
2.a. A tiger is a friendly beast, although there is the occasional exception.
b.? A tiger is a friendly beast, although many of them aren't.
* All tigers are friendly beasts, although there are a few exceptions

11. 1.2.4 Non-referential uses of referring expressions: for example This animal is a tiger. ( refers to a tiger; the properties of this animal are prototypical ones, refers to the tiger only and not for any other animal). *Which tiger is it?( makes no sense)

12. Deixis
Deixis means different things to different people. For Buhler (1934), any expression which located a referent in space or time was a deictic expression. For example, the cat + (sat on the mat: a deictic locative expression). That cat(is located with respect to the mat+ with respect to the speaker) sat on (the mat: the reference point). The key diagnostic criterion for deictic expressions will be the sensitivity of their use in designating a given referent to certain speech-situational parameters, particularly location in space and time relative to the speaker, and participatory status. For example, This book That book

13. Types of deixis Person deixis: which involves
The speaker(the first person)(I, me, we, us)
The addressee(the second person)(you)
The significant participants in the speech situation(third person)(he, she, it, they, them)
Spatial deixis :
Locative adverbs(here, there)
Demonstratives/determiners(this and that)
English has a relatively impoverished spatial deictic system, with only two terms, usually labeled proximal and distal. distal/
remote distinction includes( here, there, and yonder)

14. 3. Temporal deixis: function to locate points or intervals on the time axis, using (ultimately) the moment of utterance as a reference point. There are thus three major divisions of the time axis:
Before the moment of utterance, e.g. Yesterday
At the time of utterance, e.g. Now
After the time of utterance, e.g. Then
The most basic temporal deictics in English are:
Now as in:
Press the button—Now! (refers to a precise instant)
And then as in:
I’ll see you then.

15. 4. Social deixis: is exemplified by certain uses of the so-called TV (tu/vous) pronouns in many languages.
There are three basic possibilities involving two communicants A and B:
A addresses B with tu, B addresses A with vous.( my father will address me with tu, I will address him with vous)
A addresses B with vous, B addresses A with tu ( I will address my prof with vous, he/she will address me with tu )
A and B both use the same form (either tu or vous) because they are of the same rank, the same social status, etc.

16. 5. Discourse deixis: This: to point to future discourse elements, that is, things which are about to be said. For example, Listen to this, it will kill you! b. That :to point to past discourse elements, as in That was not a very nice thing to say . c. Hereby : to point to current discourse, as in Notice is hereby served that if payment is further delayed, appropriate legal action will be taken. d. therefore and furthermore (It follows from that) and (In addition to that) as in There was a traffic jam, therefore I was late.

17. 6. Psychological use of spatial deixis:
Abstract space: Here the argument runs into difficulties.
7. Gestural and symbolic deixis: the hearer has to be able to see the speaker and their gestures, as in:
Put one over there and the other one here.
Press the button when I give the word — now .
8. Deictic vs. non-deictic uses of locative expressions: It is sometimes claimed that certain locative expressions can be used either deictically or non-deictically, as in:
Mary lives in the house opposite the church.(deictic)
Mary lives in the house opposite.( non-deictic)

19. References
Cruse, D Alan Meaning in Language. Press Inc. New York. USA