1. Chapter 20: Standard Costing: A Managerial Control Tool
Financial and Managerial Accounting:
The Cornerstones of Business Decisions, 2e
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2. Unit Standards 1
Budgets set standards that are used to control and evaluate managerial performance.
To determine the unit standard cost for a particular input, two decisions must be made:
The quantity decision: The amount of input that should be used per unit of output
The pricing decision: The amount that should be paid for the quantity of the input to be used
Budgets set standards that are used to control and evaluate managerial performance. To determine the unit standard cost for a particular input, two decisions must be made:
The quantity decision: The amount of input that should be used per unit of output
The pricing decision: The amount that should be paid for the quantity of the input to be used
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3. Quantity and Price Standards1
The quantity decision produces quantity standards.
The pricing decision produces price standards.
The unit standard cost can be computed by multiplying these two standards:
Standard cost per unit = Quantity standard x Price standard
The quantity decision produces quantity standards, and the pricing decision produces price standards. The unit standard cost can be computed by multiplying these two standards as follows: Standard cost per unit = Quantity standard X Price standard
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4. How Standards Are Developed1
Three potential sources of quantitative standards are as follows:
Historical experience: Historical experience can provide an initial guideline for setting standards, but should be used with caution because they can perpetuate existing inefficiencies.
Engineering studies: Engineering studies can identify efficient approaches rigorous guidelines, but engineered standards often are too rigorous.
Input from operating personnel: Since operating personnel are accountable for meeting standards, they should have significant input in setting standards.
Three potential sources of quantitative standards are as follows:
Historical experience: Historical experience can provide an initial guideline for setting standards, but should be used with caution because they can perpetuate existing inefficiencies.
Engineering studies: Engineering studies can identify efficient approaches rigorous guidelines, but engineered standards often are too rigorous.
Input from operating personnel: Since operating personnel are accountable for meeting standards, they should have significant input in setting standards.
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5. 1
Types of Standards
Standards are generally classified as either ideal or currently attainable.
Of the two types, currently attainable standards offer the most behavioral benefits.
Ideal standards demand maximum efficiency and can be achieved only if everything operates perfectly. No machine breakdowns, slack, or lack of skill (even momentarily) are allowed.
Currently attainable standards can be achieved under efficient operating conditions. Allowance is made for normal breakdowns, interruptions, less than perfect skill, and so on. These standards are demanding but achievable.
Standards are generally classified as either ideal or currently attainable.
Ideal standards demand maximum efficiency and can be achieved only if everything operates perfectly. No machine breakdowns, slack, or lack of skill (even momentarily) are allowed.
Currently attainable standards can be achieved under efficient operating conditions. Allowance is made for normal breakdowns, interruptions, less than perfect skill, and so on. These standards are demanding but achievable.
Of the two types, currently attainable standards offer the most behavioral benefits.
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6. Why Standard Cost Systems Are Adopted1
Two reasons for adopting a standard cost system are frequently mentioned:
To improve planning and control
Comparing actual costs with budgeted costs identifies variances, the difference between the actual and planned costs for the actual level of activity. Overall variances can be further broken down into a price variance or a usage or efficiency variance if unit price or quantity standards have been developed. This additional information is very helpful for managers.
To facilitate product costing
Costs are assigned to products using quantity and price standards for all three manufacturing costs: direct materials, direct labor, and overhead.
Standard costing and variance analysis for controlling cost and evaluating performance can have strong ethical implications.
Two reasons for adopting a standard cost system are frequently mentioned:
To improve planning and control- Comparing actual costs with budgeted costs identifies variances, the difference between the actual and planned costs for the actual level of activity. Overall variances can be further broken down into a price variance or a usage or efficiency variance if unit price or quantity standards have been developed. This additional information is very helpful for managers.
To facilitate product costing- Costs are assigned to products using quantity and price standards for all three manufacturing costs: direct materials, direct labor, and overhead.
Standard costing and variance analysis for controlling cost and evaluating performance can have strong ethical implications.
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7. Cost Assignment Approaches1
In a standard costing system, costs are assigned to products using quantity and price standards for all three manufacturing costs: direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. At the other end of the cost assignment spectrum, an actual costing system assigns the actual costs of all three manufacturing inputs to products. In the middle of this spectrum is a normal costing system, which predetermines overhead costs for the purpose of product costing but assigns direct materials and direct labor to products by using actual costs. Thus, a normal costing system assigns actual direct costs to products but allocates budgeted indirect costs to products using a budgeted rate and actual activity.
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8. Standard Product Costs2
In manufacturing firms, standard costs are developed for direct materials, direct labor, and overhead.
Using these costs, the standard cost per unit is computed.
The standard cost sheet provides the production data needed to calculate the standard unit cost.
In manufacturing firms, standard costs are developed for direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. Using these costs, the standard cost per unit is computed. The standard cost sheet provides the production data needed to calculate the standard unit cost.
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9. The Standard Cost Sheet2
The standard cost sheet also shows the quantity of each input that should be used to produce one unit of output.
A manager should be able to compute the standard quantity of materials allowed (SQ) and the standard hours allowed (SH) for the actual output, where
and
The standard cost sheet also shows the quantity of each input that should be used to produce one unit of output. A manager should be able to compute the standard quantity of materials allowed (SQ) and the standard hours allowed (SH) for the actual output, where SQ = Unit quantity standard X Actual output and SH = Unit labor standard X Actual output.
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10. Variance Analysis: General Description3
Actual input cost can be calculated as:
Actual cost = AP x AQ
where AP = Actual price per unit
AQ = Actual quantity of input used
It is also possible to calculate the costs that should have been incurred for the actual level of activity.
Planned cost = SP x SQ
where SP = Standard price per unit
SQ = Standard quantity of input allowed for the actual output
Actual input cost can be calculated as: Actual cost = AP X AQ, where AP = Actual price per unit and AQ = Actual quantity of input used. It is also possible to calculate the costs that should have been incurred for the actual level of activity, such that Planned cost = SP X SQ, where SP = Standard price per unit and SQ = Standard quantity of input allowed for the actual output.
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11. Variance Analysis: General Description3
This exhibit provides a general model for calculating price and quantity variances for materials and labor.
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12. Total Budget Variance 3
The total budget variance is the difference between the actual cost of the input and its planned cost:
Because responsibility for deviations from planned prices tends to be located in the purchasing or personnel department and responsibility for deviations from planned usage of inputs tends to be located in the production department, it is important to separate the total variance into price and usage (quantity) variances.
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13. Price and Usage Variances3
For labor, the price variance is usually called a rate variance.
Price (rate) variance is the difference between the actual and standard unit price of an input multiplied by the number of inputs used:
Price variance = (AP - SP) x AQ
The usage (quantity) variance is called an efficiency variance.
Usage (efficiency) variance is the difference between the actual and standard quantity of inputs multiplied by the standard unit price of the input:
Usage variance = (AQ - SQ) x SP
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14. The Decision to Investigate3
As a general principle, an investigation should be undertaken only if the expected benefits are greater than the expected costs.
Managers determine whether variances are significant based on an acceptable range that has top and bottom measures called control limits.
As a general principle, an investigation should be undertaken only if the expected benefits are greater than the expected costs. Managers determine whether variances are significant based on an acceptable range that has top and bottom measures called control limits.
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15. The Analysis of Variances4
The first step in variance analysis is to decide whether the variance is significant.
If so, what is its cause?
Once the reason is known, corrective action can be taken if necessary—and if possible.
For example, if it is due to a supply shortage, no action is needed and the company will simply have to wait until market conditions improve.
If the variance is judged insignificant, no further steps are needed.
The first step in variance analysis is to decide whether the variance is significant. If so, what is its cause? Once the reason is known, corrective action can be taken if necessary—and if possible. For example, if it is due to a supply shortage, no action is needed and the company will simply have to wait until market conditions improve. If the variance is judged insignificant, no further steps are needed.
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16. Accounting and Disposition of Materials Variances4
Recognizing the price variance for materials at the point of purchase also means that the raw materials inventory is carried at standard cost.
In general, materials variances are not inventoried.
Typically, materials variances are added to cost of goods sold if unfavorable and are subtracted from cost of goods sold if favorable.
Recognizing the price variance for materials at the point of purchase also means that the raw materials inventory is carried at standard cost. In general, materials variances are not inventoried.
Typically, materials variances are added to cost of goods sold if unfavorable and are subtracted from cost of goods sold if favorable.
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17. Additional Cost Management Practices5
In addition to standard costing, some companies choose to employ other cost management practices, such as kaizen costing and target costing.
Kaizen costing focuses on the continuous reduction of the manufacturing costs of existing products and processes.
Target costing focuses on the reduction of the design costs of existing and future products and processes.
A target cost is the difference between the sales price needed to capture a predetermined market share and the desired per-unit profit:
Target cost per unit = Expected sales price per unit - Desired profit per unit
In addition to standard costing, some companies choose to employ other cost management practices, such as kaizen costing and target costing. Kaizen costing focuses on the continuous reduction of the manufacturing costs of existing products and processes. Target costing focuses on the reduction of the design costs of existing and future products and processes. A target cost is the difference between the sales price needed to capture a predetermined market share and the desired per-unit profit , calculated as: Target cost per unit = Expected sales price per unit - Desired profit per unit
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18. Appendix 20A: Accounting for Variances6
The accounts containing the variances between applied standard costs and actual costs are closed, which allows the amount of actual costs to ultimately impact the final cost of goods sold number that appears in the financial statements.
In recording variances, unfavorable variances always are debits, and favorable variances always are credits.
The accounts containing the variances between applied standard costs and actual costs are closed, which allows the amount of actual costs to ultimately impact the final cost of goods sold number that appears in the financial statements. In recording variances, unfavorable variances always are debits, and favorable variances always are credits.
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19. Disposition of Materials and Labor Variances6
At the end of the year, the variances for materials and labor usually are closed to Cost of Goods Sold.
If the variances are material, they must be prorated among various accounts.
Typically, materials variances are prorated on the basis of the materials balances in each of these accounts and the labor variances on the basis of the labor balances in the accounts.
Finally, at the end of the year, the variances for materials and labor usually are closed to Cost of Goods Sold. If the variances are material, they must be prorated among various accounts. Typically, materials variances are prorated on the basis of the materials balances in each of these accounts and the labor variances on the basis of the labor balances in the accounts.
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