1. How Authors Build Arguments to Persuade
SAT Essay Unit

2. What are ways that an author can craft an argument?

4. How do authors use these strategies and how can we locate them?

5. Evidence

6. Numbers/Data/Research
How to Identify:
Statistics usually show up in the form of specific numbers related to the topic at hand
Factual evidence can also be in the form of non-numerical information
Facts and Statistics
Numbers/Data/Research

7. Example
“The result is that the first class of the morning is often a waste, with as many as 28 percent of students falling asleep, according to a National Sleep Foundation poll.”
“Indeed, no one does well when they’re sleep-deprived, but insufficient sleep among children has been linked to obesity and to learning issues like attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.”

8. Why is it persuasive?
Facts and statistics are persuasive argument-building techniques because the author isn't just making up reasons for why his/her argument could possibly be true - there is actually something (data, research, other events/information) that backs up the author's claim.
By presenting information and facts, rather than just opinion and spin, the author empowers the reader to connect the dots on her own, which in turn gives the reader ownership over the argument and makes it more persuasive.

9. How to Identify:
a short story about a real person or event.
A specific example that supports the author’s argument.
Anecdotes
Personal stories or real world examples that illustrate the author’s point.

10. Example
“In 2002, high schools in Jessamine County in Kentucky pushed back the first bell to 8:40 a.m., from 7:30 a.m. Attendance immediately went up, as did scores on standardized tests, which have continued to rise each year.”
“When high schools in Fayette County in Kentucky delayed their start times to 8:30 a.m., the number of teenagers involved in car crashes dropped, even as they rose in the state.”

11. Why is it persuasive?
Even though anecdotes aren't statistics or facts, they can be powerful because it’s more relatable/interesting to the reader to read an anecdote than to be presented with dry, boring facts. People tend to put more faith in experiences if they can personally connect with the experiences.
Examples show the reader how the author’s claim can impact the real world. Statistics are one thing, but real world examples can show the reader that the research has a real world impact.

12. Reasoning

13. Counterarguments/Counterclaims
How to identify:
another point of view that contradicts (either fully or partially) the author's own argument.
Counterarguments/Counterclaims
Bringing in the “other side”

14. Example
“So why hasn’t every school board moved back that first bell? Well, it seems that improving teenagers’ performance takes a back seat to more pressing concerns: the cost of additional bus service, the difficulty of adjusting after- school activity schedules and the inconvenience to teachers and parents.”
What does the author do immediately after?

15. Why is it persuasive?
So how does bringing up an opposing point of view help an author build her argument? It may seem counterintuitive that discussing a counterargument actually strengthens the main argument. However, as you can see in the brief example, addressing another point of view makes it seem as if the discussion is going to be more “fair.”
This is still true whether the author delves into the counterargument or if the author only briefly mentions an opposing point of view before moving on. But a true discussion of the counterargument, as is present in Kalish’s article, also shows a deeper understanding of the topic than if the article only presented a one-sided argument. It demonstrates that the author knows the topic well enough to be able to see the issue from multiple sides, and it means that the reader is more likely to trust that the author's claims are well-thought out and worth believing.

16. Explanation of Evidence
How to Identify:
The author follows up a claim or piece of evidence with an explanation of how/why it matters
The author makes a comparison
Usually occurs after evidence has been dropped.
Explanation of Evidence
Connecting the dots between the evidence and the argument.

17. Example
“It would help working parents if their children were on the same basic schedule.”
“That way, children could get their work done at school where professionals can help them, freeing them to spend time with their families when they get home.

18. Why is it persuasive?
In general, when an author explains the logic behind her argument or point, the reader can follow along and understand the author’s argument better (which in some cases makes it more likely the reader will agree with the author).
Instead of just dropping in the example of Massachusetts, Kalish shows the reader how the evidence proves her point. Authors cannot assume the reader will make a connection between the evidence and the argument.

19. Stylistic/Persuasive Elements

20. Language that sticks out (gets our attention as readers)
How to Identify:
Vivid language is pretty easy to spot - it shows itself in similes, metaphors, adjectives, or any words that jump out at you that don’t seem to have purely functional purposes
Vivid Language
Language that sticks out (gets our attention as readers)

21. Example
“The result is that the first class of the morning is often a waste, with as many as 28 percent of students falling asleep, according to a National Sleep Foundation poll. Some are so sleepy they don’t even show up….”

22. Why is it persuasive?
Vivid language is an effective argument building device because it puts the reader in the author’s shoes and draws them into the passage. If used in moderation, vivid language will also make the topic more interesting for the reader to read, thus engaging them further.

23. Direct Appeals and Addresses to the Reader
How to identify:
Direct addresses and appeals to the reader are wordings or other stylistic devices specifically designed to provoke a response (often emotional) in the reader.
Authors may also use rhetorical questions to draw the reader in.
Direct Appeals and Addresses to the Reader
Sparking an emotional response in the reader

24. Example
“IT’S Monday morning, and you’re having trouble waking your teenagers. You’re not alone.”
“Stand up for an educational policy that allows students’ real needs — rather than outdated time constraints — to dictate how and when our children learn best.”
“So why hasn’t every school board moved back that first bell?”

25. Why is it persuasive?
Appealing to emotions, as Kalish does in her article, is an alternate route to persuasion, as it causes readers to emotionally (rather than logically) agree with the author.
Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, get the readers to step into the author's world. By reading and thinking about the author's question, the reader engages with the topic on a deeper level than if the reader were just given a statement of what the author thinks.

26. Reflection: Rhetorical Analysis Thesis Statement
Was the argument effective?
A rhetorical analysis thesis statement should say whom an author is addressing, how she is addressing them, why she is saying what she is saying, and whether or not it is effective.
This text ___________ effective in using _________________________to convince
(is/is not) (name the strategies)
______________________________ of ______________________________.
(name the audience) (name the purpose)

27. Early Bird Rhetorical Thesis Statement
Nancy Kalish, in her article “The Early Bird Gets the Bad Grade,” is effective in using ___________________, __________________, and ________________ to (convince/persuade/pressure) _____( name audience)__________ (that/to/of) ________(name the purpose of the argument)__________.