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2. Syntax: Advanced Forays – Extensions & Reflexions
Marcel den Dikken
Department of English Linguistics
ELTE

3. Nominal Typology → SAFE®ty First
• clauses (IPs) of all types, whether finite or non-finite, are
required to have their SpecIP position occupied (EPP)
• in the absence of an overt occupant of SpecIP, this
requirement is satisfied by a silent subject – PRO (in non-
finite control clauses as large as CP) or NP-trace (in the
IP complement of raising verbs)
• PRO is specified as [+anaphoric, +pronominal], and
thereby completes the matrix of nominal categories
• NP-trace occupies the [+anaphoric, –pronominal] cell of
the typology of nominal elements
• in this segment, we will discover that the [–anaphoric,
+pronominal] member of the typology also has a silent
counterpart – the null pronoun pro

4. SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
• PRO fits into the typology of nominal types as the filler of
the [+anaphoric, +pronominal] cell of the matrix
→ PRO is necessarily silent (or null) because it is assigned
‘null Case’ by the C-head of the clause in which it occurs
Q do the other cells in the matrix of nominal types feature
null forms, too?
→ the NP-trace in raising constructions is the perfect null
category to fill the [+anaphoric, –pronominal] cell
[Mary tried [CP C [IP PRO to kiss herself/*oneself]]]
[Mary seemed [IP t to kiss herself/*oneself]]
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

5. Nominal Typology why do we write ‘PRO’ in all-caps??
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
why do we write ‘PRO’ in all-caps??
is there also a null category called ‘pro’??
Q do the other cells in the matrix of nominal types feature
null forms, too?
→ it turns out that indeed there is an empty category pro –
and it fills the [–anaphoric, +pronominal] cell of the matrix
[Mary tried [CP C [IP PRO to kiss herself/*oneself]]]
[Mary seemed [IP t to kiss herself/*oneself]]
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
NP-trace
names

6. Nominal Typology why do we write ‘PRO’ in all-caps??
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
why do we write ‘PRO’ in all-caps??
is there also a null category called ‘pro’??
Q do the other cells in the matrix of nominal types feature
null forms, too?
→ it turns out that indeed there is an empty category pro –
and it fills the [–anaphoric, +pronominal] cell of the matrix
[Mary tried [CP C [IP PRO to kiss herself/*oneself]]]
[Mary seemed [IP t to kiss herself/*oneself]]
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pro
[–pronominal]
NP-trace
names

7. neither pronouns nor proper names combine with articles in English
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology *
the he *
the
John
neither pronouns nor proper names combine with articles in English
but note that while this is probably universally true for pronouns, for proper names it is not *
az ő der er * %
a János der Hans %
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

8. neither pronouns nor proper names combine with articles in English
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology *
the he
that I know now is quite different from the he/him of my youth *
the
John
that I know now is quite different from the John of my youth
neither pronouns nor proper names combine with articles in English
but note that while this is probably universally true for pronouns, for proper names it is not *
az ő der er * %
a János der Hans %
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

9. but pronouns should be radically prevented from taking an article
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology *
the he
that I know now is quite different from the he/him of my youth
the
John
that I know now is quite different from the John of my youth
we want to give proper names the capacity in principle to combine with an article
but pronouns should be radically prevented from taking an article *
az ő der er * %
a János der Hans %
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

10. but a pronoun is a D, hence can never be lower than D
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology *
the he
that I know now is quite different from the he/him of my youth
the
John
that I know now is quite different from the John of my youth
we want to give proper names the capacity in principle to combine with an article
a proper name is a noun that usually moves to D but sometimes stays put
Gianni mio
il mio Gianni
but a pronoun is a D, hence can never be lower than D *
az ő der er * %
a János der Hans %
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

11. Nominal Typology % a János der Hans % [DP [D′ D [NP N]]] John
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
[DP [D′ D
[NP N]]]
John
a proper name is a noun that usually moves to D but sometimes stays put %
a János der Hans %
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

12. Nominal Typology [DP [D′ D [NP N]]] he *he
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
what’s in NP in the structure of pronouns?
[DP [D′ D
[NP N]]] he
*he
an empty category called ‘pro’
a proper name is a noun that usually moves to D but sometimes stays put
but a pronoun is a D, hence can never be lower than D
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

13. Nominal Typology [DP [D′ D [NP N]]] he pro
SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
what’s in NP in the structure of pronouns?
[DP [D′ D
[NP N]]] he
pro
an empty category called ‘pro’
→ note that pronouns in English sometimes combine with an overt noun phrase to form the ‘pronoun–noun construction’
literature students generally don’t like [us linguists] very much
[DP [D′ D
[NP N]]] us
linguists
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pronouns
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

14. SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
what’s in NP in the structure of pronouns?
[DP [D′ D
[NP N]]] he
pro
an empty category called ‘pro’
pro and PRO are different creatures in our nominal typology
PRO occurs as the subject of non-finite clauses
pro in English only occurs inside pronominal noun phrases
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pro
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

15. SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
• the empty category PRO is licensed iff (a) and (b) hold
(a)
PRO is in an environment in which it cannot be bound
(b)
PRO gets a special ‘null Case’ from the null C-head of
the non-finite clause
• the empty category pro is licensed iff
pro is in a local relationship with a functional head that
is equipped with person/number features that serve
to identify the person/number features of pro
→ effectively, this confines the distribution of pro in English
to the complement position of a D filled with a pronoun
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pro
[–pronominal]
anaphors
names

16. SAFE® 7
Nominal Typology
with the [–anaphoric, +pronominal] cell of the typology now firmly filled with pro, there remains one cell for which we have not come across an empty candidate yet
Q does the [–anaphoric, –pronominal] cell have an empty
category in it, too?
→ it turns out that indeed there is an empty category for
this cell of the matrix – we will turn to it after addressing
some remaining questions about non-finite clauses
Nominal Types
[+anaphoric]
[–anaphoric]
[+pronominal]
PRO
pro
[–pronominal]
NP-trace
names

17. SAFE® Deposits → so far, we have seen that:
• the typology of nominal elements is defined by two
binary features, [+anaphoric] and [+pronominal]
• for overt noun phrases, only three of the four cells of the
matrix have fillers: anaphors, pronouns, and names; the
[+anaphoric, +pronominal] cell cannot have an overt ex-
ponent because it is unlicensable
• but silent [+anaphoric, +pronominal] PRO is licensed as
the subject of non-finite CP by null Case, assigned by C
• the [+anaphoric, –pronominal] NP-trace is licensed by
being bound within its local domain
• the null pronoun pro, in the [–anaphoric, +pronominal]
cell, is licensed in a local relationship with a functional
head equipped with person/number features matching
those of pro

18. Syntax: Advanced Forays – Extensions & Reflexions
Marcel den Dikken
Department of English Linguistics
ELTE

19. :