1. CH.10. Toward a theory of second language acquisition H. Douglas Brown Principles of Language Learning and Teaching

2. Building a Theory of SLA This part will cover the following topics: Domains and generalizations Hypothesis and claims Criteria for a viable theory

3. Building a Theory of SLA Yorio’s (1976) classification of learner variables. (Figure 10.1, p. 286). It shows different domains of inquiry to be included in a theory of SLA.

4. Domains and Generalizations Classification of learner variables (Yorio, 1976) 1) Age 2) Cognition 3) Native language 4) Input 5) Affective domain 6) Educational background

6. Domains and Generalizations (1) Domains of consideration in a theory of SLA: A set of domains of consideration in a theory of SLA include: 1) General understanding of what language is, what learning is & what teaching is. 2) Knowledge of how children learn their L1. 3) Understand the differences between adult and child learning and between first and second language acquisition. 4) General principles of human learning and intelligence controls to second language learning. 1. A theory of SLA includes an understanding of language, learning, and teaching. 2. Knowledge of children's learning of their 1 st language provides insights to SLA. 3. The differences between adult and child learning and between 1 st and 2 nd language acquisition must be accounted for. 4. 2 nd language learning is governed by general principles of human learning and intelligence. 5. There is variation across learners in cognitive style and within a learner in strategy choice. 1. A theory of SLA includes an understanding of language, learning, and teaching. 2. Knowledge of children's learning of their 1 st language provides insights to SLA. 3. The differences between adult and child learning and between 1 st and 2 nd language acquisition must be accounted for. 4. 2 nd language learning is governed by general principles of human learning and intelligence. 5. There is variation across learners in cognitive style and within a learner in strategy choice.

7. Domains and Generalizations (2) 6. Personality (= the way people view and reveal themselves in communication) will affect the 2 nd language learning. 7. Learning a 2 nd culture is intertwined with learning a 2 nd language. 8. The acquisition of communicative competence (= language socialization) is the learners’ ultimate goal 9. The linguistic contrasts between the native and target language form one source of difficulty in learning a 2 nd language. But the process of forming an interlanguage system involves facilitative sources and resources. Consequently, errors are inevitable aspects of this process and they give learners and teachers further insight. 6. Personality (= the way people view and reveal themselves in communication) will affect the 2 nd language learning. 7. Learning a 2 nd culture is intertwined with learning a 2 nd language. 8. The acquisition of communicative competence (= language socialization) is the learners’ ultimate goal 9. The linguistic contrasts between the native and target language form one source of difficulty in learning a 2 nd language. But the process of forming an interlanguage system involves facilitative sources and resources. Consequently, errors are inevitable aspects of this process and they give learners and teachers further insight.

8. Domains and Generalizations (3) Beneficial learner strategies cannot be specified without reference to age, human learning in general, and some affective factors. In comparing and contrasting the 1 st and 2 nd language acquisition, it is impossible to ignore affective and cultural variables and differences between adult and child cognition. Determining the source of L2 learner’s errors involves consideration of cognitive strategies and styles, group dynamics and even the validity of data–gathering procedures. No single component of this “theory” is sufficient alone: the interaction and interdependence of other components are necessary.

9. Hypothesis and Claims A theory of SLA is an interrelated set of hypotheses/ claims about how people become proficient in a 2 nd language. Popular hypothesis/claims include:  Lightbown’s claims about SLA (1985)  Lightbown and Spada’s claims (1993) A theory of SLA is an interrelated set of hypotheses/ claims about how people become proficient in a 2 nd language. Popular hypothesis/claims include:  Lightbown’s claims about SLA (1985)  Lightbown and Spada’s claims (1993)

10. Lightbown's 10 generalizations about SLA 1) 1) Adults and adolescents can "acquire" a 2 nd language. 2) The learner creates a systematic interlanguage that is often char­acterized by the same systematic errors as [those of] the child learning the same language as the 1 st language, as well as others based on the learner's own native language. 3) There are predictable sequences in acquisition so that certain structures have to be acquired before others can be integrated. 4) Practice does not make perfect. 5) Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction. 1) Adults and adolescents can "acquire" a 2 nd language. 2) The learner creates a systematic interlanguage that is often char­acterized by the same systematic errors as [those of] the child learning the same language as the 1 st language, as well as others based on the learner's own native language. 3) There are predictable sequences in acquisition so that certain structures have to be acquired before others can be integrated. 4) Practice does not make perfect. 5) Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction.

11. Lightbown's 10 generalizations about SLA (2) 6) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective in changing language behaviour. 7) For adult learners, acquisition stops/fossilizes before the learner has achieved nativelike mastery of the target language. 8) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a 2 nd language in one hour a day. 9) The learner’s task is enormous because language is enormously complex. 10) A learner’s ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his/her ability to comprehend decontextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy. 6) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective in changing language behaviour. 7) For adult learners, acquisition stops/fossilizes before the learner has achieved nativelike mastery of the target language. 8) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a 2 nd language in one hour a day. 9) The learner’s task is enormous because language is enormously complex. 10) A learner’s ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his/her ability to comprehend decontextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy.

12. Lightbown & Spada’s myths about SLA Languages are learned mainly through imitation. 1 Parents correct young children when they make errors. 2 People with high IQs are good language learners. 3 The earlier a 2 nd language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning. 4 Most of the 2 nd language learners’ mistakes due to interference from their 1 st language. 5 Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. 6 Certain claims about SLA demand cau­tion; prefaced with a "Well, it depends" ! Certain claims about SLA demand cau­tion; prefaced with a "Well, it depends" !

13. Group Activity: SLA Myths i. Figure out why each statement is a myth ii. Provide examples or counter-examples in the language classroom. i. Figure out why each statement is a myth ii. Provide examples or counter-examples in the language classroom. 1)Languages are learned mainly through imitation. 2)Parents usually correct young children when they make errors. 3)People with high IQs are good language learners. 4)The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning. 5)Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to interference from their first language. 6)Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits. 1)Languages are learned mainly through imitation. 2)Parents usually correct young children when they make errors. 3)People with high IQs are good language learners. 4)The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning. 5)Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to interference from their first language. 6)Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits.

14. Criteria for a Viable Theory Larsen- Freeman (1997) suggested some lessons from the chaos theory to help us design a theory of SLA: Beware of false dichotomies (contradictions). Look for complementarity, inclusiveness and interface. Beware of linear, causal approaches to theorizing because SLA is very complex with so many interacting factors. Beware of overgeneralizations - focus on details. Beware of reductionist thinking - oversimplifying a complex system. Diane Larsen-Freeman (1997), argued that SLA is a dynamic, complex and non-linear system Each learner takes a different path to achieve success. Diane Larsen-Freeman (1997), argued that SLA is a dynamic, complex and non-linear system Each learner takes a different path to achieve success.

15. Long’s 8 criteria for a theory of SLA 1 Account for universals. 2 Account for environmental factors. 3 Account for variability in age, acquisition rate and proficiency level. 4 Explain both cognitive and affective factors. 5 Account for form-focused learning, not just subconscious acquisition. 6 Account for other variables besides exposure and input. 7 Account for cognitive/ innate factors which explain interlanguage systematicity. 8 Recognize that acquisition is not a steady accumulation of generalizations.

16. Hot Topics in SLA Research Help define terms not covered previously and review crucial terms in understanding theoretical models of SLA. Explicit and Implicit LearningAwarenessInput and OutputFrequency

17. Explicit and Implicit Learning (1) Researchers are still occupied with the questions about the effectiveness of explicit and implicit learning. Explicit Learning - involves conscious awareness and attention. Implicit Learning - learning without conscious attention or awareness. Related concepts: intentional and incidental learning. Attention can occur under both conditions.

18. Explicit and Implicit Learning (2) There is a universal agreement that both explicit and implicit learning offer advantages and disadvantages. The central questions are complex: Under what conditions, for which learners and for what linguistic elements is one approach advantageous to SLA? How are we to measure (Ellis, 2004) explicit knowledge? Generalizations are not possible, all the specifics of a given context should be considered before making a conclusion.

19. Awareness (1) Noticing may be an essential prerequisite to a learner’s ability to convert input into intake (Schmidt, 1990; Robinson, 2003; Ellis, 1997; Leow, 2000). Input refers to the subset of all input that actually gets assigned to our long-term memory store. Intake is what you take with you over a period of time and can later remember. Awareness is similar to conscious (vs. subconscious) learning, where learners are intentionally controlling their attention and some aspects of input and output. Schmidt’s (1990) proposed the noticing hypothesis in which he suggested a central role for focal attention, stemming from awareness, for a learner to notice language input.

20. Awareness (2) The debate over requisite levels of awareness in SLA is complex and demands a careful specification of conditions before any conclusion can be offered. It seems advantageous that learners are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and to consciously employ strategic options in their learning (Brown, 2002). Certain degree of focus on form can be beneficial. However, many learners are much too consciously involved in the forms of the target language that it blocks their ability to focus on meaning.

21. Input and Output There is still a great debate over what constitutes the optimal quality of input and output. Both input and output are necessary processes, which are in varying degree of complementary distribution in L2 learners’ language learning process. Output- is the production of language (speaking and writing). Input- the process of comprehending language (listening and reading). The relationship of input to output in SLA was controversial but is becoming less so.

22. Frequency Frequency = how many times a specific word, structure, or other defined element of language captures the attention of a learner. Frequency may be more important than traditionally thought. Educators cannot simply ignore the possibility that frequency can potentially influence acquisition.

23. Innatist model: Krashen’s Input Hypothesis One of the most controversial theoretical perspectives in SLA Monitor Model Acquisition -Learning Hypothesis Input Hypothesis

24. Innatist Model: Krashen’s Input Hypothesis Acquisition -Learning Hypothesis Monitor Hypothesis Natural Order Hypothesis Input Hypothesis Affective Filter Hypothesis

25. 1.Acquisition -Learning Hypothesis Acquisition Subconscious & intuitive process of constructing the system of language. Learning Conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, aware of their own process.

26. 1. Acquisition - Learning Hypothesis (1) Krashen (1981) “Fluency in 2 nd language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned.” Adults should do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency; otherwise they will get stuck in: - rule learning - too much conscious attention to forms of language & watching own progress. Krashen (1981) “Fluency in 2 nd language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned.” Adults should do as much acquiring as possible in order to achieve communicative fluency; otherwise they will get stuck in: - rule learning - too much conscious attention to forms of language & watching own progress. Krashen (1982) Conscious learning processes and subconscious acquisition processes are mutually exclusive: Learning cannot become acquisition “No interface” between acquisition & learning is used to strengthen the argument; - large doses of acquisition activity in classroom - minor role assigned to learning Krashen (1982) Conscious learning processes and subconscious acquisition processes are mutually exclusive: Learning cannot become acquisition “No interface” between acquisition & learning is used to strengthen the argument; - large doses of acquisition activity in classroom - minor role assigned to learning

27. 2. Monitor Hypothesis “Monitor” involved in learning, not acquisition A device for “watchdogging” one’s output:  Editing  Making alterations, or  Corrections (consciously perceived) Explicit and intentional learning are largely avoided, as it is presumed to hinder acquisition. Once fluency is established, optimal amount of monitoring or editing should be employed by learner. (Krashen, 1981)

28. 3. Natural Order Hypothesis We acquire language rules in a predictable or ‘natural’ order. Follows the earlier morpheme order studies of Dulay and Burt (1974, 1976).

29. 4. Input Hypothesis (1) Comprehensible input is the only true cause of 2 nd language acquisition. Important condition for language acquisition to occur: the acquirer understands (via hearing/ reading) input language that contains structure a bit beyond his/her current level of competence.

30. 4. Input Hypothesis (2) If acquirer at stage ‘i’, the input he/she understands should contain i+1. (Krashen, 1981). Language exposed should be just far enough beyond their current competence, that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither go far beyond (i + 2), nor too close to their current level (i + 0). (not challenged at all) Krashen’s recommendation: speaking should not be taught directly or very early in language classroom. Speech will emerge once acquirer has built enough comprehensible input (i + 1).

31. 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis Environments where anxiety is low, defensiveness absent = best acquisition Environments where anxiety is low, defensiveness absent = best acquisition

32. Evaluations of the 5 Hypothesis Critique on the distinction between subconcious (acquisition) and conscious (learning process) No interface, overlap between acquisition and learning. 2 nd language learning is a process in which varying degrees of learning and of acquisition can both be beneficial, depending on one’s own styles and strategies (Swain, 1998) Implication that the notion of i +1 is a novel idea; reiteration of a general principle of learning that has been discussed. Ausubel’s terms Vygotsky’s ZPD

33. The Output Hypothesis (1) It is important to distinguish between input and intake. Input: information that gets assigned to out long- term memory store. Intake: what you take with you over a period of time and can later remember.

34. Krashen (1983)  suggests that input gets converted to intake through a learner’s process of linking forms to meaning and noticing “gaps” between the learner’s current internalized rule system and new input. Seliger (1983)  broader conceptualization of the role of input that gives learners more credit for eventual success. The Output Hypothesis (2) HIGH INPUT GENERATORS (HIGs) LOW INPUT GENERATORS (LIGs)

35. The Output Hypothesis (3) HIGH INPUT GENERATORS (HIGs) LOW INPUT GENERATORS (LIGs) People who are good at initiating and sustaining interaction, or generating input from teachers, etc. Passive learners who do less efforts to get input directed toward them, Learners who maintained high levels of interaction (HIGs) in 2 nd language, progressed faster than learners who interacted little in classroom. (Seliger, 1983)

36. The Output Hypothesis (4) 3 Major Outputs in SLA Speech and writing can offer a means for learner to reflect on language itself in interaction with peers. Output serves as a means to try out one’s language to test various hypothesis that are forming. While attempting to produce target language, learners may notice their erroneous attempts to convey meaning Swain (2005, 1995) suggested 3 major functions of output in SLA.

37. Cognitive Models McLaughlin’s Attention- Processing Model Implicit and Explicit Models

38. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models (1) A more sound heuristic for conceptualizing language acquisition process, and one that avoid any direct appeal to a consciousness continuum. Proposed by Mclaughlin and his colleagues; (McLaughlin, 1990b, 1987; McLeod & McLaughlin, 1986; McLaughlin, Rossman, & McLeod, 1983; McLaughlin, 1978)

39. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models (2) Attention to Formal Properties of Language INFORMATION PROCESSING ControlledAutomatic Focal(Cell A) Performance based on formal rule learning (Cell B) Performance in a test situation Peripheral(Cell C) Performance based on implicit learning or analogic learning (Cell D) Performance in communication situations Table 10.1. Possible 2 nd language performance as a function of information- processing procedures and attention to formal properties of language (McLaughlin et al., 1983)

40. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models (3) Controlled Processes: Typical process of learning new skill, only few elements of skill can be retained. Automatic Processes: Processing more accomplished skill, brain can manage a lot of information simultaneously. Characterized as fast, effortless, unconscious and independent of the amount of information being processed. Segalowitz, 2003

41. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models (4) Automatic processes: The automatizing of the multiplicity data is accomplished by a process of restructuring in which the components of a task are coordinated, integrated into new units, and allows the old component to be replaced by a more efficient procedure. Both ends of this continuum of processing can occur with either focal (focusing attention centrally) or peripheral attention (focusing attention on the periphery).

42. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Models (5) CONTROLLED: New skill, capacity limited AUTOMATIC: Well trained, practiced skill capacity is relatively unlimited Focal Intentional Attention A.Grammatical explanation of a specific point Word definition Copy of a written model The first stages of “memorizing” a dialog Prefabricated patterns Various discrete-point exercises B. “Keeping an eye out” for something Advanced L2 learner focuses on modals, formation, etc. Monitoring oneself while talking or writing Scanning Editing, peer-editing PeripheralC. Simple greetings The later stages of “memorizing” a dialog TPR/Natural Approach New L2 learner successfully completes a brief conversation D. Open-ended group work Rapid reading, skimming Free writes Normal conversational exchanges of some length Table 10.2. Practical applications of McLaughlin’s attention-processing model (Brown, 2007, p. 302)

43. Practical Applications of McLaughlin’s Attention- Processing Model The cells are described in in terms of one’s processing of and attention to language forms (grammatical, phonological, discourse rules, etc.) If peripheral attention is given to language forms in a more advanced language classroom, focal attention is given to meaning, function, purpose or person. Child 2 nd language learning may consist almost exclusively of peripheral attention to language forms (Cell C and D). Adult 2 nd language learning involves movement from Cell A through a combination of C and B, to D. (DeKeyser, 1997).

44. Implicit and Explicit Models (1) Explicit processing: one’s knowledge about language Implicit knowledge: - information that is automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks - implicit processes enable learners to perform language, but not necessarily to cite rules governing the performance. (Brown, 2007, p. 302)

45. Implicit and Explicit Models (2) Ellen Bialystok (1990a, 1982, 1978) is one of those who have proposed models of Second language Acquisition (SLA) using the implicit/explicit distinction. Bialystok (1982, p.183) equated implicit and explicit with synonymous terms; unanalyzed and analyzed knowledge.

46. Model of Second Language Learning (Bialystok, 1978) Figure 10.2. Model of 2 nd language learning (adapted from Bialystok 1978, p. 71) ( Brown, 2007, p. 303)

47. Unanalyzed knowledge General form in which we know most things without being aware of the structure of that knowledge. Learners have little awareness of language rules Analyzed knowledge Learners are overtly aware of the structure of analyzed knowledge. Learners can verbalize complex rules governing language. Implicit and Explicit Models (3)

48. Comprehension Check! What are the two terms used in the Output Hypothesis proposed by Seliger (1983)? How many hypothesis are there in the Innatist Model? Which are they? What are the ‘controlled processes’? And the ‘automatic processes’?

49. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONG’S INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (1) Two Preceding Theories Krashen’s Input Hypothesis The Cognitive Model of 2 nd Language Acquisition Focus to a considerable extent on the learners

50. A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONG’S INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (2) The social constructivist perspectives emphasize the dynamic nature of the interplay between learners, their peers and their teachers and others with whom they interact. The interaction between learners and others is the focus of observation and explanation

51. INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (1) Micheal Long (1985-1996) takes up where in a sense Krashen left off. He posits in what has come to be called the interaction hypothesis, that comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction.

52. INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (2 ) Learners learn new forms in a language through the negotiation around meaning that occurs when they engage in communication and communication learning activities.

53. Modify Interaction (1) Interaction between native speakers For example: babies imitate their parents:” the cat fat” Parents might correct: no we don’t say that. We say: “the fat cat” Our parents may modify their speech to children Mommy go bye bye now” Interaction between native speakers with 2 nd language learners.

54. But native speakers often slow down speech to 2 nd language learners (modification also include comprehension checks) EX: “go down to the subway - do you know the word subway?” and they explain the word “subway” Or “I went to a new year’s Eve party, You know, a night before the first day of a new year. Modify Interaction (2)

55. Modify Interaction (3) In Longs view: - Interaction and Input are two major players in the process of acquisition. - Conversation and other interactive communication are the basic for the linguistic rules. Further, Long’s hypothesis centers on the language classroom seen not only as a place where learners of varying abilities and styles and background mingle, but also as a place where the contexts for interaction are carefully designed.

56. Theories and Models of SLA INNATIST (Krashen ) COGNITIVE (McLauglin / Bialystok) CONSTRUCTIVIST (Long) Subconscious acquisition superior to “learning” & “monitoring” Comprehensible input (i+1) Low affective filter Natural order of acquisition “Zero option” for grammar instruction Controlled /automatic processing (McL) Focal / peripheral attention (McL) Restructuring (McL) Implicit vs. explicit (B) Unanalyzed vs. analyzed knowledge (B) Form-focused instruction Interaction hypothesis Intake through social interaction Output hypothesis (Swain) HIGS (Seliger) Authenticity Task-Based instruction

57. From Theory to Practice (1) Theories are constructed by professors and researchers who hypothesize, describe, measure and conclude things about learners and learning and the teachers

58. From Theory to Practice (2) Researchers give many skills to teacher in: program developing, textbook writing, observing, measuring variables of acquisition applying technology to teaching.

59. Practitioners (1) Practitioners are thought of as teachers who out there in classroom every day stimulate, encourage, observe and assess real learners.

60. A practitioner/teacher is made to feel that he/ she is the recipient of a researcher/theorist's findings and prognostications, with little to offer in return. Practitioners (2)

61. QUESTIONS What is the interaction hypothesis of Michael Long? What are cognitive models? Who is a practitioner?