1. Chapter 10 Errors of Procedure
*Errors of perspective happen before we even address an issue…they have to do with our predispositions (beliefs, attitudes, expectations, etc.)
*Errors of procedure occur in the process of addressing specific issues
-biased consideration of evidence
-double standard
-hasty conclusion
-overgeneralization and stereotyping
-oversimplification
-post hoc fallacy
Beyond Feelings

2. Biased Consideration of Evidence
Two forms of this error:
Only seeking evidence that confirms your bias
Interpreting evidence that challenges your bias in a way that supports your bias
*It’s natural for all of us to lean in one direction
--happens innocently & sometimes without our knowledge
--it’s nearly impossible to be perfectly impartial
--have to be aware of how this biases our consideration of evidence
--two forms of this error:
1. only seeking evidence that confirms your bias
2. interpreting evidence that challenges your bias in a way that supports your bias
*To avoid biased consideration of evidence:
--start by seeking out individuals who oppose your view & then move on to views that support yours
**Practice this in your DOO assignments
--choose the most reasonable interpretation of evidence not just whichever one supports your bias

3. Double Standard
Using one standard of judgment for our ideas and ideas compatible with our own but using an entirely different standard for ideas that disagree with ours
*Double standard: using one standard of judgment for our ideas & ideas compatible w our own and an entirely different standard for ideas that disagree with ours
--ignore inconsistencies, contradictions, & outrageous overstatements in arguments they agree with
--Nitpick when evaluating their opponents argument
*Double standards can usually be seen in their vocabulary
--the way they describe the exact same thing will change depending on the standard of judgment they use
*To avoid the error of double standard:
1. decide in advance what judgment criteria you will use & apply those criteria consistently

4. A premature judgment made without sufficient evidence
Hasty Conclusion
A premature judgment made without sufficient evidence
*Hasty conclusion: premature judgment made without sufficient evidence
--it takes mental discipline to resist jumping to conclusions
--most people just accept the first judgment & never consider others
*To avoid hasty conclusions:
--identify all possible conclusions before you select one
--decide whether you have sufficient evidence to support any of those conclusions
--support the conclusion with sufficient evidence

5. Overgeneralization & Stereotyping
Overgeneralization: to ascribe to all the members of a group what fits only some members
Stereotype: an overgeneralization that is especially resistant to change
*Generalizing: the mental activity by which we draw broad conclusions from particular experiences
--It is important to learning, especially for our safety
--natural for us to generalize to understand categories and in aggregating
--generalize from samples to populations in psychology
*Problem is overgeneralization: to ascribe to all the members of a group what fits only some members
*Stereotype: an overgeneralization that is especially resistant to change
--most stereotypes are related to ethnicity & religion
--stereotypes can be positive or negative but they are usually negative
**understanding cultural patterns or referencing VALID group characteristics is not stereotyping
*Overgeneralizations and stereotypes hinder critical thinking b/c they prevent us from seeing the differences among people w/in groups.
*To avoid these errors:
--resist the temptation to force people, places or things into rigid categories
--remember the less experience you have, the less assertive you should be in forming generalizations

6. Multiple causes are reduced to just one or a few
Oversimplification
Multiple causes are reduced to just one or a few
*Simplification is not only useful but essential
--allows experts to explain complex material to less knowledgeable people so they can understand
*Oversimplification: distorts & twists ideas, misleads people
EX: Oversimplified Statement:
*Be alert for oversimplification in what you read and hear
*Avoid it in your own thinking!

7. The Post Hoc Fallacy
Expresses the reasoning that when one thing occurs after another, it must be the result of the other
*Post hoc, ergo propter hoc=“after this, therefore because of this”
*Post Hoc Fallacy: expresses the reasoning that when one thing occurs after another, it must be the result of the other.
--order and closeness in time does not equal a cause and effect relationship
--one event can happen after another & the two events can be completely unrelated
*Always have to consider that things may just be a coincidence!