1. Dr. Yasser Nada Fall 2010/2011 Lecture 1
Logic Programming
PROLOG
Dr. Yasser Nada
Fall 2010/2011
Lecture 1
Logic Programming

2. Text Book
Prolog Programming, A First Course, by Paula Brna, 2001
References:
Leon Starling and Ehud Shapiro, The art of Prolog
Ivan Brotko, Prolog Programming for Artificial Intelligence
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Logic Programming

3. PROLOG Course Description
This course will introduce the theory and concepts of logic programming. Prolog will be studied as a logic programming approach for declarative logic programming.
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4. PROLOG Course Objectives
Upon completion of the course, student should:
Knowledge of concepts and theories of logic programming.
Become familiar with Prolog language syntax.
Be able to solve problems in Prolog.
Be able to use knowledge in a suitable form to be used in Prolog language..
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5. Course Policy
Students are expected to participate and attend the class in time. Students are responsible to submit assignments in time. Exams will be a combination of lectures in class and homework assignments. Late homework submission will be subject to penalties. If an assignment is submitted late, a penalty of 10 percent of that assignment's grade will be assessed for each day it is late. A homework paper will not be accepted after graded papers have been returned, after a solution has been distributed, or after the final examination.
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6. Absence Policy
Students absent that exceeds (25% lectures) are being considered dropped from the course. After 3 lectures absent a warning is issued for the student. After another 3 lectures absent student will be dropped from the class.
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7. Examination
There will be no makeup exams except under emergencies. If a student cannot attend the exam, then student must make arrangement with the instructor prior to the planned absence. The emergency makeup exam will be either written or oral.
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8. PROLOG Grading Assignment 10% Attendance Midterm 30% Final 50%
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9. PROLOG
Introduction
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10. What is Logic Programming
Two types of programming languages:
Imperative languages (C, C++, VB, C#, Java, …).
Declarative languages (prolog, lisp, …).
Logic programming is a type of programming called declarative programming.
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Logic Programming

11. PROLOG Imperative Languages They are also called procedural languages.
Programmer gives all steps to solve a problem. He must know an algorithm to solve a problem.
Example: find average of list of numbers:
Input total
Input number
Average = total/number
Print Average
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12. Declarative Languages
Programmer describe the problem without the control flow, then the system will solve the problem.
Programmer must know the relations between objects to solve the problem.
Programmer does not need to know an algorithm to solve the problem.
Declarative languages consists of:
Program or theory.
Computation which is deduction.
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13. PROLOG First Order Predicate Represent relation between objects:
own(ahmed, car).
friend(ali, ahmed).
father(sami, ali).
brother(kareem, ali).
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14. Prolog
It is a declarative language (not completely declarative) based on first order logic.
Prolog means Programming in Logic.
It consists of:
Facts.
Rules.
Goal
Used in AI: NLP, expert systems, games, automated answering system, ….
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15. PROLOG Prolog Prolog Program consist of:
Facts: asserts a property to an object, or relation between two or more objects:
parent(ali, salem).
own(ali, car).
Rules: allow to infer a relationship or a property based on a precondition:
parent(X,Y) :- father(F,X), father(P,Y).
Goal: Query or questions asked by user.
parent(ali, Y).
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16. PROLOG Atoms Atom is Examples: a sequence of alphanumeric characters
usually starting with lower case letter
or, a string enclosed in single quotes
They represent constants.
Examples:
ali, salem, a, b, c, a1, a2, b3, c5, …
‘Mr. Ali’, ’Dr. Sultan’
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17. PROLOG Variables A variable is Examples:
a sequence of alphanumeric characters
usually starting with an uppercase letter
Examples:
X, Y, Z, Parent, Child, Foo, X1, Y1, X2, X5, X6, ….
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18. PROLOG Predicates A predicate has the form Examples: p(t1,...,tn)
where p is an atom and t1...tn are variables or atoms.
n is the number of arguments of predicate p (written as p/n which represents the signature of predicate).
Predicates can be of 0-arg, 1-arg, 2-arg, …
Examples:
father(ali, ahmed).
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19. Prolog Program Example
like(ali, car). like(ahmed, car). father(salem, ali). father(salem, ahmed). brother(X,Y) :- father(P,X), father(P,Y). friend(X,Y) :- like(X,C), like(Y,C).
Predicate name
Predicate arguments
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Predicate End
and if
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20. PROLOG Goals A goal is a conjunction of predicates
p(X,Y),q(Y,Z),t(Z,W).
A goal is the question or query asked by the user. Prolog will try to find an answer for the goal.
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21. PROLOG Answers Given a goal, Prolog searches for answer(s):
“yes” (possibly with answer substitution)
“no” (if no answer or no more answer found).
Substitutions are bindings of variables that make goal true.
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22. PROLOG Examples ?- father(X,ali). X = salem ? ; no
male(ali).
male(ahmed).
male(salem).
father(salem, ali).
father(salem, ahmed).
brother(X,Y) :- father(P,X), father(P,Y),
male(X), make(Y).
?- father(X,ali).
X = salem ? ; no
?- father(X,Y), brother(Y,Z).
X = salem, Y = ali, Z = ahmed
yes
? ;
X = salem, Y=ahmed, Z=ali
Yes
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23. PROLOG Rules A rule is an assertion of the form
p(ts) :- q(ts’), ..., r(ts’’).
where ts, ts’, ts’’ are atoms or variables
“p(ts) holds if q(ts’) holds and ... And r(ts’’) holds”
Example:
brother(X,Y) :- father(Z,X), father(Z,Y).
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24. PROLOG Prolog You can try prolog by downloading prolog compiler:
Ciao:
Choose Windows version,
For Windows Vista: current version
For Windows XP: select version Ciao-1.10p5Win32.zip
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25. Ciao installation under Windows XP
After downloading ciao-1.10pWin32.zip, extract it in C:\
Then goto C:\Ciao-1.10p5Win32
Double click on the file: install.bat
Then type ciaosh at the DOS prompt, the prolog prompt appears: ?-
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26. Ciao installation under Windows Vista
After downloading CiaoDE XXXX.exe, double click on it to run.
At the desktop you will find a file: ciaosh shortcut. Double click on it and the Prolog prompt appears: ?-
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27. PROLOG Miscellaneous Comments comment */ To quit Ciao, type
% single line comment
/* multiple
line
comment */
To quit Ciao, type
?- exit.
(or just control-D)
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